Hundred Years' War

1337–1453. Intermittent 116-year conflict between England and France over the succession to the French throne and the alleged English claim to it. The term 'Hundred Years War' itself did not emerge until the nineteenth century in an attempt to characterise the Middle Ages through concepts such as “romance” and “chivalry” (Wagner 2006: 160). Not only due to its unprecedented length, but also through the involvement of other kingdoms and duchies has the Hundred Years War changed the cultural and political landscape of Europe significantly with the emergence of the nation state in the years to follow.

Origins

Anglo-French tensions were at the very heart of the conflict, as the English Crown deduced a form of claim to the French throne from its possessions in the south-west of France. In the wake of the 1295 Auld Alliance between Scotland and France, France faced a succession crisis following the death of Charles IV in 1328. In spite of Edward III of England's attempts, the throne was ascribed to his cousin Philip of Valois, with the conflict culminating in his 1337 confiscation of Aquitaine – the trigger event of the Hundred Years War (cf. Keen 2011).

Course of the War

Curry (2002: 10) differentiates between four different phases within the war.

The first phase dating from 1337 to 1360, frequently referred to as the “Edwardian phase” (Wagner 2006: 160f.), starts with the annexation of the English possessions in the south of France. Edward III considered the French aggression as a threat towards his claim to the throne and reacted by invading France. Due to the support of Edward's oldest son, the “Black Prince”, decisive battles were won at Crécy in 1346 and at Poitiers in 1356, during the latter of which John of France, Philip’s successor, was taken prisoner (cf. Keen 2011). The 1360 Treaty of Brétigny put a temporary end to the conflict, with the French paying ransom for King John's release and handing over the south-west in return for Edward renouncing his claim to the throne.

Yet, the conflict was not to be over and the end of the peace of Brétigny in 1369 marked the beginning of the second phase, lasting until 1399 (cf. Baker 2000: 57). The new French king, Charles V, managed to drive the English troops back to the north-west of France until he passed away in 1380, merely three years after Edward's death, who faced sharp criticism during the last years of his reign due to increased taxation. With the war waging for nearly half a century already, both sides were increasingly becoming war-weary and the two new kings, King Richard II of England and Charles VI of France, were prepared to negotiate a peace agreement leading in 1389 to a 26-year period of stability (cf. Keen 2011).

The deposition of Richard II and, consequently, the installation of Henry IV as King of England in 1399 heralded the beginning of a period Curry referred to as “cold war” (2002: 54). This third period of the Hundred Years War, which lasted until 1429, witnessed the revival of old tensions between the two kingdoms and, yet again, the supremacy of the English crown against the French in the 1415 Battle of Agincourt. Not only did Henry V obtain the possibility of marrying the French king's daughter, Catherine, but he was also assured to be succeeded by his infant son, Henry VI, after his death in 1422 as King of England and France, as stipulated in the Treaty of Troyes in 1420 (cf. DeVries 2008: 7). However, the situation grew continuously grim for both sides: the regency of Henry VI was taken over by his uncle, John, Duke of Bedford, whereas Charles VII of France was waiting to bypass his father's treaty with England to assert his claim to the throne. In the course of the events, English troops attempted to conquer further parts of France, but were halted in Orléans due to the strength and charisma of Joan of Arc, who could break the siege and won the battle for Charles VII.

This episode marked a turning point in the entire war and the beginning of the last phase until the end in 1453. In spite of Joan of Arc's death in 1430, former allies switched sides, residing with the House of Valois again and recognising Charles VII as the legitimate king; in fact, the provisions of the Treaty of Troyes could at that point be regarded as null and void. Military reforms brought along the changes and advancements that were necessary for the French to retake the rest of the country and to bring the war to an end at Castillon in 1453 (cf. Wagner 2006: 163f.).

Aftermath and Significance

Despite the lack of a proper settlement for the end of the Hundred Years War, one can conclude that the balance of power shifted towards the French after the war. Significant political changes occurred and led England into a series of wars for control of the English throne known as the War of the Roses, whereas the victory paved the way towards absolute monarchy in France (cf. Curry 2002: 91f.). England managed, however, to remain control over the Pale of Calais until 1558 and refused to abandon the title “King of France” until the Treaty of Amiens in 1801, both of which proved to be crucial points in the Anglo-French hostilities that ensued the Hundred Years War. Nevertheless, the British Crown lost all its lands in the south-west of France. In the decades to come, the ideas of national identity began to flourish and sharpen the differences between European kingdoms and counties. In fact, English superseded French as England's spoken language. Meanwhile, warfare increasingly became an integral part of the different economies; demands for “weapons, armour and fortifications” (ibid.) eventually encourage new technological advancements and the development of gunpowder artillery.

Sources

Baker, Denise N. “Meed and the Economies of Chivalry in Piers Plowman.” Inscribing the Hundred Years' War in French and English Cultures. Ed. Denise N. Baker. New York: SUNY Press, 2000. 55–72.

Curry, Anne. The Hundred Years' War: 1337-1453. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002.

DeVries, Kelly. “The Hundred Years Wars: Not One But Many.” The Hundred Years War (Part II): Different Vistas. Eds. L. J. Andrew Villalon and Donald J. Kagay. Leidem: Brill, 2008. 3–34.

Keen, Maurice. “The Hundred Years War.” BBC British History (17 Februar 2011): <http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/hundred_years_war_01.shtml> (last accessed 1 November 2016).

Wagner, John A. Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006.