British Culture - User contributions [en]

Orientalism

2010-01-22T02:53:51Z

Pearldiver:

The depiction or an image people have of Eastern cultures.

At the same time, '''Orientalism''' describes the imitation of aspects of 'the Orient' by Western writers, designers and artists.

In the 19th century, scholars translated the writings of 'the Orient' into English. By doing this, they wanted to gain knowledge about the Eastern countries they were planning to conquer.

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Orientalism is the European or Western practice and system of writing, study and thought which has created the Orient, which thus is non-existant as such. The so-called Orient (deriving from the Latin word “oriens“ meaning “east“) is supposed to be a geographical entity. However, it cannot be located exactly; sometimes considered as anything east of Europe, practically all of Asia; sometimes referring to the whole of Islamic countries. Driven by a strange fascination Orientalism has taken many forms in Western study, literature, art and architecture (among other things) throughout the centuries.

In his book ''Orientalism'' (1978) [[Edward Said]] offers a post-structuralist approach suggesting that Orientalism or the Orient is a construct, a discourse. The Orient is defined by otherness, as opposed and in relation to the West, or the occident, defining it in return. Yet this counterpart derives rather from closeness than difference. Influenced by the works of [[Foucault]] and [[Gramsci]], Said focuses on the period of [[imperialism]] pointing out that Orientalism, like knowledge, is always linked to power and that the West’s construction of the Orient is a sign of dominance over it.

== The Beginnings of Orientalism ==

'''Literature'''

The Orient has been a subject in literature since antiquity, its literary discovery in Europe later on, however, was initiated by the first French publication of ''One Thousand and One Nights'' about 1704-1717. Although there was no other serious edition in English or German until a hundred years later, French language and culture were very influential in the eighteenth century. Thus, the work stimulated the imagination of many writers and readers, although there still existed rather little factitive knowlegde about the Orient.

In their works [[Montesquieu]] (among others: ''Lettres Persanes''; 1721), [[Kant]] (lectures 1772-96) and [[Voltaire]] (''Zadig, ou La destineé, Histoire Orientale''; 1747) use the Orient as a geographically as well as culturally far-off entity to critically review the situation in Europe and European ways of thinking. In England [[Samuel Johnson]] published his didactic novel ''The Prince of Abissinia'' (1759), similarly telling the story of a disillusioned protagonist in Kairo. Later, parallel to the popular development of the [[gothic novel]], authors like [[John Hawkesworth]] (''Almoran and Hamet'', 1761), [[James Ridley]] (''Tales of Genji'', 1764) and [[Frances Sheridan]] (''The History of Nourjahad'', 1767) wrote novels set in exotic locations, constituting the so-called Oriental novel. The gothic and Oriental themes meet in [[William Beckford]]’s ''Vathek. An Arabian Tale'' (1786).

While in England these kind of novels became increasingly popular, German thinkers and writers like [[Hamann]], [[Herder]], [[Schlegel]] and [[Hegel]] concerned themselves with theoretical aspects of the occupation with Oriental literary themes and the Oriental culture as such.

After 1800 the Orient had been turned into an object of a [[romantic]] craving. Rebellious heroes who disdained society’s morals travelling the Orient became fashionable. Writers and poets like [[George Gordon Noël (Lord) Byron]], [[John Keats]], [[Thomas Moore]] and [[Sir Walter Scott]] all sent their protagonists on journeys through the Orient. In addition to this, writers went out to travel to Oriental locations themselves for educational purposes or pilgrimage, thus, invigorating Orientalist literature and art even more.

'''Art'''
(suggestion for expansion)

'''Architecture and other forms'''
(suggestion for expansion)

== Orientalism in the 19th century ==

(suggestion for expansion)
etc.

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'''Sources'''

Said, Edward W. ''Orientalism''. 25th anniversary ed. with a new preface (1st ed. 1978). New York: Vintage Books, 2003.

Syndram, Karl Ulrich. “Der erfundene Orient in der europäischen Literatur vom 18. bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts.“ E''uropa und der Orient 800-1900.'' Ed. Gereon Sievernich and Hendrik Budde. Gütersloh/München: Bertelsmann, 1989. 324-341.

http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Orientalism.html

[[Category:Expansion]]

Edmund Burke

2009-12-15T21:04:37Z

Pearldiver:

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a British-Irish philosopher, parliamentarian and political writer.

[[File:Burke_1.jpg]]

== Life ==

Edmund Burke was born on 12 January 1729 on Arran Quay, Dublin as the son of a Protestant lawyer at the Irish Court, Richard Burke, and his Catholic wife Mary Nagle. Edmund and his two brothers were raised in the established Church of Ireland; his only sister Juliana, however, was brought up in the Catholic tradition, although she, too, was baptised in a Protestant church. This religious mixture in his parent’s marriage was to become of great significance in his adult life, shaping his thoughts in particular with regard to the political questions of Catholics and Ireland.

At an early age Burke was sent to his mother’s Catholic relatives in Ballyduff in County Cork where he spent most of his childhood. When he was about eleven years old he came back home and attended a school in Dublin for about a year. Then he and his brothers were sent to a boarding school in Ballitore in County Kildare.

Burke was fifteen when he left Ballitore school to attend Trinity College Dublin. There he and some fellow students founded a literary club (’Academy of Belles Lettres’) and later literary weekly called ’The Reformer’. In February 1748 Burke graduated.

Two years later, conforming to his father’s wish, he began to study law at Middle Temple in London. Given his preference for writing, he abandoned his juridicial studies in 1755. One year later Burke published his first book ''A Vindication of Natural Society''.

In 1757 he married Jane Mary Nugent, the daughter of an Irish Catholic doctor, with whom he was to have two sons, Richard and Christopher (who died as a chlid).

From 1759 to 1764 Burke worked as private secretary to William Hamilton, the Irish Chief Secretary, in Ireland. Back in London, he became Rockingham’s private secretary in 1765 and was elected to the [[House of Commons]], which determined his career in politics. (Rockingham was the leading figure of a group of former [[Whigs]] whose party, little earlier, had been broken by King [[George III]].) Bringing in his talents as a writer it was Burke who elaborated the political vision of his party the Rockingham Whigs (“Old Whigs“). He gave many speeches at parliament and became a famous and influential figure although he never held any office for a long time. Later, after the party had split, he publically broke with both sections, Fox and the Whigs, and continued writing on politics independently.

FInally, Burke retired in 1794 and spent his last days away from political action, although he never stopped writing.

He dies on 9 July 1797 at the age of 68 in Beaconsfield, England.

== Political Work and Thought ==

Throughout the years, as a member of parliament and as a political writer, Burke was concerned with a great variety of issues among which were Britain’s rule in Ireland, North America and India. However, his critique of the French Revolution was to remain connected to his name. Although Burke produced a vast amount of writings, he did not impart a school of political thought that outlasted him.

== Some Works ==

A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)

A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)

An Account of the European Settlements (1757, co-author)

An Abridgement of English History (c.1757-62)

Annual Register (1758-1765, principal ‘conductor’)

American Taxation (1774)

Conciliation with America (1775)

Fox's East India Bill (1783)

Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770)

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791)

Letters on a Regicide Peace (1795-7)

A Letter to a Noble Lord (1796)

A Letter to William Elliot (1795)

== Sources ==

Ayling, Stanley: ''Edmund Burke. His Life and Opinions.'' London: John Murray, 1988.

Harris, Ian, <nowiki>"Edmund Burke"</nowiki>. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Stanford University. 13 Dec. 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/burke/>.

Hill, B.W. (ed.): Edmund Burke. On Government, Politics and Society. Sussex: The Harvester Press, 1975. 7-64.

[[Category:Expansion]]

Edmund Burke

2009-12-15T21:03:15Z

Pearldiver:

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a British-Irish philosopher, parliamentarian and political writer.

[[File:Burke_1.jpg]]

== Life ==

Edmund Burke was born on 12 January 1729 on Arran Quay, Dublin as the son of a Protestant lawyer at the Irish Court, Richard Burke, and his Catholic wife Mary Nagle. Edmund and his two brothers were raised in the established Church of Ireland; his only sister Juliana, however, was brought up in the Catholic tradition, although she, too, was baptised in a Protestant church. This religious mixture in his parent’s marriage was to become of great significance in his adult life, shaping his thoughts in particular with regard to the political questions of Catholics and Ireland.
At an early age Burke was sent to his mother’s Catholic relatives in Ballyduff in County Cork where he spent most of his childhood. When he was about eleven years old he came back home and attended a school in Dublin for about a year. Then he and his brothers were sent to a boarding school in Ballitore in County Kildare.
Burke was fifteen when he left Ballitore school to attend Trinity College Dublin. There he and some fellow students founded a literary club (’Academy of Belles Lettres’) and later literary weekly called ’The Reformer’. In February 1748 Burke graduated.
Two years later, conforming to his father’s wish, he began to study law at Middle Temple in London. Given his preference for writing, he abandoned his juridicial studies in 1755. One year later Burke published his first book ''A Vindication of Natural Society''.
In 1757 he married Jane Mary Nugent, the daughter of an Irish Catholic doctor, with whom he was to have two sons, Richard and Christopher (who died as a chlid).
From 1759 to 1764 Burke worked as private secretary to William Hamilton, the Irish Chief Secretary, in Ireland. Back in London, he became Rockingham’s private secretary in 1765 and was elected to the [[House of Commons]], which determined his career in politics. (Rockingham was the leading figure of a group of former [[Whigs]] whose party, little earlier, had been broken by King [[George III]].) Bringing in his talents as a writer it was Burke who elaborated the political vision of his party the Rockingham Whigs (“Old Whigs“). He gave many speeches at parliament and became a famous and influential figure although he never held any office for a long time. Later, after the party had split, he publically broke with both sections, Fox and the Whigs, and continued writing on politics independently.
FInally, Burke retired in 1794 and spent his last days away from political action, although he never stopped writing.
He dies on 9 July 1797 at the age of 68 in Beaconsfield, England.

== Political Work and Thought ==

Throughout the years, as a member of parliament and as a political writer, Burke was concerned with a great variety of issues among which were Britain’s rule in Ireland, North America and India. However, his critique of the French Revolution was to remain connected to his name. Although Burke produced a vast amount of writings, he did not impart a school of political thought that outlasted him.

== Some Works ==

A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)

A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)

An Account of the European Settlements (1757, co-author)

An Abridgement of English History (c.1757-62)

Annual Register (1758-1765, principal ‘conductor’)

American Taxation (1774)

Conciliation with America (1775)

Fox's East India Bill (1783)

Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770)

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791)

Letters on a Regicide Peace (1795-7)

A Letter to a Noble Lord (1796)

A Letter to William Elliot (1795)

== Sources ==

Ayling, Stanley: ''Edmund Burke. His Life and Opinions.'' London: John Murray, 1988.

Harris, Ian, <nowiki>"Edmund Burke"</nowiki>. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Stanford University. 13 Dec. 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/burke/>.

Hill, B.W. (ed.): Edmund Burke. On Government, Politics and Society. Sussex: The Harvester Press, 1975. 7-64.

[[Category:Expansion]]

Edmund Burke

2009-12-15T21:01:52Z

Pearldiver:

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a British-Irish philosopher, parliamentarian and political writer.

[[File:Burke_1.jpg]]

== Life ==

Edmund Burke was born on 12 January 1729 on Arran Quay, Dublin as the son of a Protestant lawyer at the Irish Court, Richard Burke, and his Catholic wife Mary Nagle. Edmund and his two brothers were raised in the established Church of Ireland; his only sister Juliana, however, was brought up in the Catholic tradition, although she, too, was baptised in a Protestant church. This religious mixture in his parent’s marriage was to become of great significance in his adult life, shaping his thoughts in particular with regard to the political questions of Catholics and Ireland.
At an early age Burke was sent to his mother’s Catholic relatives in Ballyduff in County Cork where he spent most of his childhood. When he was about eleven years old he came back home and attended a school in Dublin for about a year. Then he and his brothers were sent to a boarding school in Ballitore in County Kildare.
Burke was fifteen when he left Ballitore school to attend Trinity College Dublin. There he and some fellow students founded a literary club (’Academy of Belles Lettres’) and later literary weekly called ’The Reformer’. In February 1748 Burke graduated.
Two years later, conforming to his father’s wish, he began to study law at Middle Temple in London. Given his preference for writing, he abandoned his juridicial studies in 1755. One year later Burke published his first book ''A Vindication of Natural Society''.
In 1757 he married Jane Mary Nugent, the daughter of an Irish Catholic doctor, with whom he was to have two sons, Richard and Christopher (who died as a chlid).
From 1759 to 1764 Burke worked as private secretary to William Hamilton, the Irish Chief Secretary, in Ireland. Back in London, he became Rockingham’s private secretary in 1765 and was elected to the [[House of Commons]], which determined his career in politics. (Rockingham was the leading figure of a group of former [[Whigs]] whose party, little earlier, had been broken by King [[George III]].) Bringing in his talents as a writer it was Burke who elaborated the political vision of his party the Rockingham Whigs (“Old Whigs“). He gave many speeches at parliament and became a famous and influential figure although he never held any office for a long time. Later, after the party had split, he publically broke with both sections, Fox and the Whigs, and continued writing on politics independently.
FInally, Burke retired in 1794 and spent his last days away from political action, although he never stopped writing.
He dies on 9 July 1797 at the age of 68 in Beaconsfield, England.

== Political Work and Thought ==

Throughout the years, as a member of parliament and as a political writer, Burke was concerned with a great variety of issues among which were Britain’s rule in Ireland, North America and India. However, his critique of the French Revolution was to remain connected to his name. Although Burke produced a vast amount of writings, he did not impart a school of political thought that outlasted him.

== Some Works ==

A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)
A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)
An Account of the European Settlements (1757, co-author)
An Abridgement of English History (c.1757-62)
Annual Register (1758-1765, principal ‘conductor’)
American Taxation (1774)
Conciliation with America (1775)
,Fox's East India Bill (1783)
Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770)
Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791)
Letters on a Regicide Peace (1795-7)
A Letter to a Noble Lord (1796)
A Letter to William Elliot (1795)

== Sources ==

Ayling, Stanley: ''Edmund Burke. His Life and Opinions.'' London: John Murray, 1988.

Harris, Ian, <nowiki>"Edmund Burke"</nowiki>. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Stanford University. 13 Dec. 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/burke/>.

Hill, B.W. (ed.): Edmund Burke. On Government, Politics and Society. Sussex: The Harvester Press, 1975. 7-64.

[[Category:Expansion]]

File:Burke 1.jpg

2009-12-15T20:59:27Z

Pearldiver:

Edmund Burke

2009-12-15T20:58:46Z

Pearldiver:

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a British-Irish philosopher, parliamentarian and political writer.

== Life ==

Edmund Burke was born on 12 January 1729 on Arran Quay, Dublin as the son of a Protestant lawyer at the Irish Court, Richard Burke, and his Catholic wife Mary Nagle. Edmund and his two brothers were raised in the established Church of Ireland; his only sister Juliana, however, was brought up in the Catholic tradition, although she, too, was baptised in a Protestant church. This religious mixture in his parent’s marriage was to become of great significance in his adult life, shaping his thoughts in particular with regard to the political questions of Catholics and Ireland.
At an early age Burke was sent to his mother’s Catholic relatives in Ballyduff in County Cork where he spent most of his childhood. When he was about eleven years old he came back home and attended a school in Dublin for about a year. Then he and his brothers were sent to a boarding school in Ballitore in County Kildare.
Burke was fifteen when he left Ballitore school to attend Trinity College Dublin. There he and some fellow students founded a literary club (’Academy of Belles Lettres’) and later literary weekly called ’The Reformer’. In February 1748 Burke graduated.
Two years later, conforming to his father’s wish, he began to study law at Middle Temple in London. Given his preference for writing, he abandoned his juridicial studies in 1755. One year later Burke published his first book ''A Vindication of Natural Society''.
In 1757 he married Jane Mary Nugent, the daughter of an Irish Catholic doctor, with whom he was to have two sons, Richard and Christopher (who died as a chlid).
From 1759 to 1764 Burke worked as private secretary to William Hamilton, the Irish Chief Secretary, in Ireland. Back in London, he became Rockingham’s private secretary in 1765 and was elected to the [[House of Commons]], which determined his career in politics. (Rockingham was the leading figure of a group of former [[Whigs]] whose party, little earlier, had been broken by King [[George III]].) Bringing in his talents as a writer it was Burke who elaborated the political vision of his party the Rockingham Whigs (“Old Whigs“). He gave many speeches at parliament and became a famous and influential figure although he never held any office for a long time. Later, after the party had split, he publically broke with both sections, Fox and the Whigs, and continued writing on politics independently.
FInally, Burke retired in 1794 and spent his last days away from political action, although he never stopped writing.
He dies on 9 July 1797 at the age of 68 in Beaconsfield, England.

== Political Work and Thought ==

Throughout the years, as a member of parliament and as a political writer, Burke was concerned with a great variety of issues among which were Britain’s rule in Ireland, North America and India. However, his critique of the French Revolution was to remain connected to his name. Although Burke produced a vast amount of writings, he did not impart a school of political thought that outlasted him.

== Some Works ==

A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)
A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)
An Account of the European Settlements (1757, co-author)
An Abridgement of English History (c.1757-62)
Annual Register (1758-1765, principal ‘conductor’)
American Taxation (1774)
Conciliation with America (1775)
,Fox's East India Bill (1783)
Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770)
Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791)
Letters on a Regicide Peace (1795-7)
A Letter to a Noble Lord (1796)
A Letter to William Elliot (1795)

== Sources ==

Ayling, Stanley: ''Edmund Burke. His Life and Opinions.'' London: John Murray, 1988.

Harris, Ian, <nowiki>"Edmund Burke"</nowiki>. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Stanford University. 13 Dec. 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/burke/>.

Hill, B.W. (ed.): Edmund Burke. On Government, Politics and Society. Sussex: The Harvester Press, 1975. 7-64.

[[Category:Expansion]]

Orientalism

2009-12-15T18:51:26Z

Pearldiver:

Edmund Burke

2009-12-14T15:01:00Z

Pearldiver:

British 18th-century philosopher.

*work in progress*

[[Category:Expansion]]

Neo-Classical architecture

2009-11-11T00:13:19Z

Pearldiver: Created page with '== Neo-Classical Architecture in Britain == Neo-Classical architecture denotes an architectural style which readopted classical elements in the middle of the 18th century (abou…'

== Neo-Classical Architecture in Britain ==

Neo-Classical architecture denotes an architectural style which readopted classical elements in the middle of the 18th century (about 1760), turning away from the Renaissance and returning to the antique aesthetics of Athens and Rome.

The Neo-Classical movement became very popular in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in Europe and also applied to fields other than architecture.

In Britain Robert Adam (1728-1792) became well-known internationally for being the herald of the “Classical Revival“, Neo-Classicism in British architecture. Adam is using delicate ornaments and light constructions which can be seen in Adam’s Syon House (Middlesex, 1761). His books on antique ruins in Italy and those of other contemporaries like James Stuart and Nicholas Revett provided English architects and artists with an idea of the strength and plainness of the Doric style. A strong preference for the Greek antique was exerted by James Stuart (1713-1788) who built the first “copy“ of a Greek Doric temple on English ground in Hagley in 1758. Robert Adam and his brother James created the Adelphi Buildings in London in 1767, a Neo-Classical terrace house. Some years later Sir William Chambers (1723-1796) elaborated and built the Somerset House next to the Thames. Furthermore, John Nash (1752-1835) contributed to London’s cityscape by designing the Regent’s Park and Regent’s Street (1812-13) which shows Neo-Classical facades.

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== Sources ==

Pevsner, Nikolaus. ''Europäische Architektur – Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart.'' (English original, 1943) München: Prestel-Verlag, 2008. 309-361.

Crook, J. Mordaunt. ''The Greek Revival. Neo-Classical Attitudes in British Architecture 1760-1870.'' London: John Murray, 1972.

Crespi Morbio, Vittoria. “Vom 18. zum 19. Jahrhundert. Der Klassizismus. Die Romantik. Exotismus. Der Historismus.“ ''Kunst. Die Weltgeschichte.'' Mailand: Leonardo Arte srl, 1997. 365-371.