https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=JuliaS 2026-05-11T14:49:31Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.0 https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=George_II&diff=4214 2010-01-28T18:16:03Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>November 10, 1683- October 25, 1760.<br /> George II was the sole son of his father [[George I]] and Sophia. The future monarch spent his youth in Germany and married his wife in 1705. She was called Caroline of Ansbach and gave birth to three sons and five daughters. Similar to his father and due to his stay in Germany, he was considered a German prince. Nevertheless, he integrated into English society well and was used to the English customs when he ascended the throne at the age of 30.[[http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon54.html]<br /> <br /> Generally, it is said that George possessed three passions: the army, music and his wife (in spite of this, he also had mistresses). He loved the music of George Frederick Handel, who had been George I's court musician in Hanover. Handel composed &quot;Four coronation anthems in full score&quot; for his royal fan. [http://books.google.de/books?id=q_oSgRtf9iAC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=george+II&amp;lr=&amp;as_drrb_is=b&amp;as_minm_is=0&amp;as_miny_is=1999&amp;as_maxm_is=0&amp;as_maxy_is=2009&amp;as_brr=0#v=onepage&amp;q=&amp;f=false]<br /> <br /> The King declared war on Spain in 1739 against the wishes of his Prime Minister Walpole.[http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon54.html] In the [[War of the Austrian Succession]], George II led his troupes in the successful [[Battle of Dettingen]] (the last British monarch to do so). In celebration of the victory, Handel composed the &quot;Dettingen Te Deum&quot;. <br /> <br /> He died in October 25. (Mayhan, 304)<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Sources'''<br /> <br /> http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon54.html<br /> <br /> George Frideric Handel. &quot;Four coronation anthems: composed for the coronation of King George II.&quot; General Publishing: London, 1994. <br /> <br /> Alfred Thayer Mahan. ''The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783''. Gretna: Pelican 2003.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4158 2010-01-25T20:15:09Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire in 1778. He left school at the age of seventeen.<br /> <br /> From 1787 on William Wordsworth attended St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he also started writing. However, the young man could not quite adapt to the old college. &quot;He found himself imprisoned within ancient walls, and required to submit to the diginified authority that is based on old systems and older traditions&quot; (Masson 15). As Wordsworth eventually lost any serious academic interest, he decided to go to France in 1790 where he got into contact with the enthusiasm of the French Revolution and republican ideas. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> In France he met Annette Vallon, who gave birth to their daughter Caroline in 1792. They did not marry for the outbreak of the war between France and Britain disrupted their relationship. William did not meet his daughter until she was nine years old. Back in Cambridge, William did not follow any career options - except for writing - rather he developed a resistance &quot;to having his life shaped for him by those he did not like and in ways he could not approve&quot; (Gill 40). <br /> &quot;Unprepared for any profession, rootless, virtually penniless, bitterly hostile to his own country’s opposition to the French, he lived in London in the company of radicals like William Godwin and learned to feel a profound sympathy for the abandoned mothers, beggars, children, vagrants, and victims of England’s wars who began to march through the sombre poems he began writing at this time.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> His reunion with his sister [[Dorothy Wordsworth]] in 1795 ended this dark period. The siblings moved to Alfoxden House, near Bristol, and did not part for life. In 1798, Wordsworth's friendship with poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] developed, which &quot;would change both poets’ lives and alter the course of English poetry&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> William married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend in 1802. They had three sons and two daughters.<br /> <br /> Criticised by fellow poets and contemporaries at first William Wordsworth could eventually gain a high reputation, especially after he published ''The River Duddon'' in 1820.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] <br /> <br /> During his last years he undertook major reworks of his poems. From 1843 until his death in 1850 Wordsworth held the title of poet laureate.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> Together with his friend [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] William Wordsworth published ''Lyrical Ballads'' (1798) which is seen as the beginning of Romanticism in English literature. &quot;Most of the poems were dramatic in form, designed to reveal the character of the speaker. The manifesto and the accompanying poems thus set forth a new style, a new vocabulary, and new subjects for poetry, all of them foreshadowing 20th-century developments.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> The poet's works comprises numerous poems, sonnets, odes and ballads. Nature imagese and spirit were key elements in his writings (Riasanovsky 22). Another important contribution to the Romantic Age is the concept of emotional permanence emphasising human emotions and human rights (Wordsworth et al. 38).<br /> <br /> Another major work is ''The Prelude'' (1850), an (semi-)autobiographical poem, which he reworked his whole life and was not published until his death.<br /> <br /> His life as a poet can be roughly divided into two phases: &quot;the young Romantic revolutionary and the aging Tory humanist&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth's life spans a transformation in almost every sphere of human existence: political, social, economic, and cultural. He was born [...] into a world on the threshold of dramatic, sometimes violent, change.&quot; (Wordsworth et al. 1)<br /> <br /> [He] was the central figure in the English Romantic revolution in poetry.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> &quot;One of the great poets of England and the world, Wordsworth has been especially acclaimed as a poet of nature&quot; (Riasanovsky 14). <br /> <br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. ''The Emergence of Romanticism.'' New York/ Oxford: OUP, 1992, 7-39.<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4157 2010-01-25T20:13:42Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire in 1778. He left school at the age of seventeen.<br /> <br /> From 1787 on William Wordsworth attended St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he also started writing. However, the young man could not quite adapt to the old college. &quot;He found himself imprisoned within ancient walls, and required to submit to the diginified authority that is based on old systems and older traditions&quot; (Masson 15). As Wordsworth eventually lost any serious academic interest, he decided to go to France in 1790 where he got into contact with the enthusiasm of the French Revolution and republican ideas. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> In France he met Annette Vallon, who gave birth to their daughter Caroline in 1792. They did not marry for the outbreak of the war between France and Britain disrupted their relationship. William did not meet his daughter until she was nine years old. Back in Cambridge, William did not follow any career options - except for writing - rather he developed a resistance &quot;to having his life shaped for him by those he did not like and in ways he could not approve&quot; (Gill 40). <br /> &quot;Unprepared for any profession, rootless, virtually penniless, bitterly hostile to his own country’s opposition to the French, he lived in London in the company of radicals like William Godwin and learned to feel a profound sympathy for the abandoned mothers, beggars, children, vagrants, and victims of England’s wars who began to march through the sombre poems he began writing at this time.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> His reunion with his sister [[Dorothy Wordsworth]] in 1795 ended this dark period. The siblings moved to Alfoxden House, near Bristol, and did not part for life. In 1798, Wordsworth's friendship with poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] developed, which &quot;would change both poets’ lives and alter the course of English poetry&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> William married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend in 1802. They had three sons and two daughters.<br /> <br /> Criticised by fellow poets and contemporaries at first William Wordsworth could eventually gain a high reputation, especially after he published ''The River Duddon'' in 1820.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] <br /> <br /> During his last years he undertook major reworks of his poems. From 1843 until his death in 1850 Wordsworth held the title of poet laureate.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> Together with his friend [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] William Wordsworth published ''Lyrical Ballads'' (1798) which is seen as the beginning of Romanticism in English literature. &quot;Most of the poems were dramatic in form, designed to reveal the character of the speaker. The manifesto and the accompanying poems thus set forth a new style, a new vocabulary, and new subjects for poetry, all of them foreshadowing 20th-century developments.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> The poet's works comprises numerous poems, sonnets, odes and ballads. Nature imagese and spirit were key elements in his writings (Riasanovsky 22). Another important contribution to the Romantic Age is the concept of emotional permanence emphasising human emotions and human rights (Wordsworth et al. 38).<br /> <br /> Another major work is ''The Prelude'' (1850), an (semi-)autobiographical poem, which he reworked his whole life and was not published until his death.<br /> <br /> His life as a poet can be roughly divided into two phases: &quot;the young Romantic revolutionary and the aging Tory humanist&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth's life spans a transformation in almost every sphere of human existence: political, social, economic, and cultural. He was born [...] into a world on the threshold of dramatic, sometimes violent, change.&quot; (Wordsworth et al. 1)<br /> <br /> [He] was the central figure in the English Romantic revolution in poetry.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> &quot;One of the great poets of England and the world, Wordsworth has been especially acclaimed as a poet of nature&quot; (Riasanovsky 14). <br /> <br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. ''The Emergence of Romanticism.'' New York/ Oxford: OUP, 1992, 7-39.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4156 2010-01-25T20:13:22Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire in 1778. He left school at the age of seventeen.<br /> <br /> From 1787 on William Wordsworth attended St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he also started writing. However, the young man could not quite adapt to the old college. &quot;He found himself imprisoned within ancient walls, and required to submit to the diginified authority that is based on old systems and older traditions&quot; (Masson 15). As Wordsworth eventually lost any serious academic interest, he decided to go to France in 1790 where he got into contact with the enthusiasm of the French Revolution and republican ideas. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> In France he met Annette Vallon, who gave birth to their daughter Caroline in 1792. They did not marry for the outbreak of the war between France and Britain disrupted their relationship. William did not meet his daughter until she was nine years old. Back in Cambridge, William did not follow any career options - except for writing - rather he developed a resistance &quot;to having his life shaped for him by those he did not like and in ways he could not approve&quot; (Gill 40). <br /> &quot;Unprepared for any profession, rootless, virtually penniless, bitterly hostile to his own country’s opposition to the French, he lived in London in the company of radicals like William Godwin and learned to feel a profound sympathy for the abandoned mothers, beggars, children, vagrants, and victims of England’s wars who began to march through the sombre poems he began writing at this time.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> His reunion with his sister [[Dorothy Wordsworth]] in 1795 ended this dark period. The siblings moved to Alfoxden House, near Bristol, and did not part for life. In 1798, Wordsworth's friendship with poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] developed, which &quot;would change both poets’ lives and alter the course of English poetry&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> William married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend in 1802. They had three sons and two daughters.<br /> <br /> Criticised by fellow poets and contemporaries at first William Wordsworth could eventually gain a high reputation, especially after he published ''The River Duddon'' in 1820.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] <br /> <br /> During his last years he undertook major reworks of his poems. From 1843 until his death in 1850 Wordsworth held the title of poet laureate.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> Together with his friend [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] William Wordsworth published ''Lyrical Ballads'' (1798) which is seen as the beginning of Romanticism in English literature. &quot;Most of the poems were dramatic in form, designed to reveal the character of the speaker. The manifesto and the accompanying poems thus set forth a new style, a new vocabulary, and new subjects for poetry, all of them foreshadowing 20th-century developments.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> The poet's works comprises numerous poems, sonnets, odes and ballads. Nature imagese and spirit were key elements in his writings (Riasanovsky 22). Another important contribution to the Romantic Age is the concept of emotional permanence emphasising human emotions and human rights (Wordsworth et al. 38).<br /> <br /> Another major work is ''The Prelude'' (1850), an (semi-)autobiographical poem, which he reworked his whole life and was not published until his death.<br /> <br /> His life as a poet can be roughly divided into two phases: &quot;the young Romantic revolutionary and the aging Tory humanist&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth's life spans a transformation in almost every sphere of human existence: political, social, economic, and cultural. He was born [...] into a world on the threshold of dramatic, sometimes violent, change.&quot; (Wordsworth et al. 1)<br /> <br /> [He] was the central figure in the English Romantic revolution in poetry.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> &quot;One of the great poets of England and the world, Wordsworth has been especially acclaimed as a poet of nature&quot; (Riasanovsky 14). <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. ''The Emergence of Romanticism.'' New York/ Oxford: OUP, 1992, 7-39.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4155 2010-01-25T20:12:03Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire in 1778. He left school at the age of seventeen.<br /> <br /> From 1787 on William Wordsworth attended St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he also started writing. However, the young man could not quite adapt to the old college. &quot;He found himself imprisoned within ancient walls, and required to submit to the diginified authority that is based on old systems and older traditions&quot; (Masson 15). As Wordsworth eventually lost any serious academic interest, he decided to go to France in 1790 where he got into contact with the enthusiasm of the French Revolution and republican ideas. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> In France he met Annette Vallon, who gave birth to their daughter Caroline in 1792. They did not marry for the outbreak of the war between France and Britain disrupted their relationship. William did not meet his daughter until she was nine years old. Back in Cambridge, William did not follow any career options - except for writing - rather he developed a resistance &quot;to having his life shaped for him by those he did not like and in ways he could not approve&quot; (Gill 40). <br /> &quot;Unprepared for any profession, rootless, virtually penniless, bitterly hostile to his own country’s opposition to the French, he lived in London in the company of radicals like William Godwin and learned to feel a profound sympathy for the abandoned mothers, beggars, children, vagrants, and victims of England’s wars who began to march through the sombre poems he began writing at this time.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> His reunion with his sister [[Dorothy Wordsworth]] in 1795 ended this dark period. The siblings moved to Alfoxden House, near Bristol, and did not part for life. In 1798, Wordsworth's friendship with poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] developed, which &quot;would change both poets’ lives and alter the course of English poetry&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> William married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend in 1802. They had three sons and two daughters.<br /> <br /> Criticised by fellow poets and contemporaries at first William Wordsworth could eventually gain a high reputation, especially after he published ''The River Duddon'' in 1820.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] <br /> <br /> During his last years he undertook major reworks of his poems. From 1843 until his death in 1850 Wordsworth held the title of poet laureate.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> Together with his friend [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] William Wordsworth published ''Lyrical Ballads'' (1798) which is seen as the beginning of Romanticism in English literature. &quot;Most of the poems were dramatic in form, designed to reveal the character of the speaker. The manifesto and the accompanying poems thus set forth a new style, a new vocabulary, and new subjects for poetry, all of them foreshadowing 20th-century developments.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> The poet's works comprises numerous poems, sonnets, odes and ballads. Nature imagese and spirit were key elements in his writings (Riasanovsky 22). Another important contribution to the Romantic Age is the concept of emotional permanence emphasising human emotions and human rights (Wordsworth et al. 38).<br /> <br /> Another major work is ''The Prelude'' (1850), an (semi-)autobiographical poem, which he reworked his whole life and was not published until his death.<br /> <br /> His life as a poet can be roughly divided into two phases: &quot;the young Romantic revolutionary and the aging Tory humanist&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth's life spans a transformation in almost every sphere of human existence: political, social, economic, and cultural. He was born [...] into a world on the threshold of dramatic, sometimes violent, change.&quot; (Wordsworth et al. 1)<br /> <br /> [He] was the central figure in the English Romantic revolution in poetry.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> &quot;One of the great poets of England and the world, Wordsworth has been especially acclaimed as a poet of nature&quot; (Riasanovsky 14). <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. ''The Emergence of Romanticism.'' New York/ Oxford: OUP, 1992, 7-39.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4154 2010-01-25T19:57:22Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). At the age of seven, William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire after Ann Wordsworth died. He left school at the age of seventeen.<br /> <br /> From 1787 on he attended St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he started writing. However, the young man could not quite adapt to the old college. &quot;He found himself imprisoned within ancient walls, and required to submit to the diginified authority that is based on old systems and older traditions&quot; (Masson 15). As Wordsworth quickly lost any serious academic interest at college, he decided to go to France in 1790. There he got into contact with the enthusiasm of the French Revolution and republican ideas. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> In France he met Annette Vallon, who gave birth to their daughter Caroline in 1792. They did not marry and the outbreak of the war between France and Britain disrupted their relationship. William did not meet his daughter before she was nine years old. Back in Cambridge William did not follow any career options - except for writing - rather he developed a resistance &quot;to having his life shaped for him by those he did not like and in ways he could not approve&quot; (Gill 40). <br /> &quot;Unprepared for any profession, rootless, virtually penniless, bitterly hostile to his own country’s opposition to the French, he lived in London in the company of radicals like William Godwin and learned to feel a profound sympathy for the abandoned mothers, beggars, children, vagrants, and victims of England’s wars who began to march through the sombre poems he began writing at this time.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> His reunion with his sister [[Dorothy Wordsworth]] in 1795 ended his dark period. The siblings moved to Alfoxden House, near Bristol, and did not part for life. In 1798 Wordsworth's friendship with poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] developed, which &quot;would change both poets’ lives and alter the course of English poetry&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> In 1802 William married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] They had three sons and two daughters.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> Together with his friend [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] William Wordsworth published ''Lyrical Ballads'' (1798) which is seen as the beginning of Romanticism in English literature. &quot;Most of the poems were dramatic in form, designed to reveal the character of the speaker. The manifesto and the accompanying poems thus set forth a new style, a new vocabulary, and new subjects for poetry, all of them foreshadowing 20th-century developments.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> The poet's works comprises numerous poems, sonnets, odes and ballads. Among others nature and spirit were key elements in his writings (Riasanovsky 22). Another important contribution to the Romantic Age is the concept of emotional permanence emphasising human emotions and rights (Wordsworth et al. 38). <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Another major work is ''The Prelude'' (1850), an (semi-)autobiographical poem, which he reworked his whole life and was published after his death for the first time.<br /> <br /> His life as a poet can be roughly divided into two phases: &quot;the young Romantic revolutionary and the aging Tory humanist&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth's life spans a transformation in almost every sphere of human existence: political, social, economic, and cultural. He was born [...] into a world on the threshold of dramatic, sometimes violent, change.&quot; (Wordsworth et al. 1)<br /> <br /> [He] was the central figure in the English Romantic revolution in poetry.&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> &quot;One of the great poets of England and the world, Wordsworth has been especially acclaimed as a poet of nature&quot; (Riasanovsky 14). <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. ''The Emergence of Romanticism.'' New York/ Oxford: OUP, 1992, 7-39.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4150 2010-01-25T19:29:39Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). At the age of seven, William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire after Ann Wordsworth died. He left school at the age of seventeen.<br /> <br /> From 1787 on he attended St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he started writing. However, the young man could not quite adapt to the old college. &quot;He found himself imprisoned within ancient walls, and required to submit to the diginified authority that is based on old systems and older traditions&quot; (Masson 15). As Wordsworth quickly lost any serious academic interest at college, he decided to go to France in 1790. There he got into contact with the enthusiasm of the French Revolution and republican ideas. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> In France he met Annette Vallon, who gave birth to their daughter Caroline in 1792. They did not marry and the outbreak of the war between France and Britain disrupted their relationship. William did not meet his daughter before she was nine years old. Back in Cambridge William did not follow any career options - except for writing - rather he developed a resistance &quot;to having his life shaped for him by those he did not like and in ways he could not approve&quot; (Gill 40). <br /> &quot;Unprepared for any profession, rootless, virtually penniless, bitterly hostile to his own country’s opposition to the French, he lived in London in the company of radicals like William Godwin and learned to feel a profound sympathy for the abandoned mothers, beggars, children, vagrants, and victims of England’s wars who began to march through the sombre poems he began writing at this time.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> His reunion with his sister [[Dorothy Wordsworth]] in 1795 ended his dark period. The siblings moved to Alfoxden House, near Bristol. At that time his friendship with poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] developed, which &quot;would change both poets’ lives and alter the course of English poetry&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> In 1802 William married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] They had three sons and two daughters.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth's works comprises numerous poems, sonnets, odes and ballads. One of his major works is ''The Prelude'' (1850), which was published after the poet's death.<br /> <br /> can be roughly divided into two phases: &quot;the young Romantic revolutionary and the aging Tory humanist&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4147 2010-01-25T19:19:47Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). At the age of seven, William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire after Ann Wordsworth died, until he was seventeen.<br /> <br /> From 1787 on he attended St. John’s College, Cambridge. However, the young man could not quite adapt to the system. &quot;He found himself imprisoned within ancient walls, and required to submit to the diginified authority that is based on old systems and older traditions&quot; (Masson 15). As Wordsworth quickly lost his serious academic interest at college, he decided to go to France in 1790. There he got into contact with the enthusiasm of the French Revolution and republican ideas. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] <br /> <br /> In France he met Annette Vallon, who gave birth to their daughter Caroline in 1792. They did not marry and the outbreak of the war between France and Britain disrupted their relationship. William did not meet his daughter before she was nine years old. Back in Cambridge William did not follow any career options - except for writing - rather he developed a resistance &quot;to having his life shaped for him by those he did not like and in ways he could not approve&quot; (Gill 40). <br /> &quot;Unprepared for any profession, rootless, virtually penniless, bitterly hostile to his own country’s opposition to the French, he lived in London in the company of radicals like William Godwin and learned to feel a profound sympathy for the abandoned mothers, beggars, children, vagrants, and victims of England’s wars who began to march through the sombre poems he began writing at this time.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> <br /> His reunion with his sister [[Dorothy Wordsworth]] in 1795 ended his dark period. The siblings moved to Alfoxden House, near Bristol. At that time his friendship with poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] developed, which &quot;would change both poets’ lives and alter the course of English poetry&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> In 1802 William married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] They had three sons and two daughters.<br /> <br /> He then returned to England to marry Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend, and start an English family, which had grown to three sons and two daughters by 1810.<br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth's works can be roughly divided into two phases: &quot;the young Romantic revolutionary and the aging Tory humanist&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> <br /> , risen into what John Keats called the “Egotistical Sublime.” Little of Wordsworth’s later verse matches the best of his earlier years.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4145 2010-01-25T19:19:15Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). At the age of seven, William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire after Ann Wordsworth died, until he was seventeen.<br /> From 1787 on he attended St. John’s College, Cambridge. However, the young man could not quite adapt to the system. &quot;He found himself imprisoned within ancient walls, and required to submit to the diginified authority that is based on old systems and older traditions&quot; (Masson 15). As Wordsworth quickly lost his serious academic interest at college, he decided to go to France in 1790. There he got into contact with the enthusiasm of the French Revolution and republican ideas. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] <br /> In France he met Annette Vallon, who gave birth to their daughter Caroline in 1792. They did not marry and the outbreak of the war between France and Britain disrupted their relationship. William did not meet his daughter before she was nine years old. Back in Cambridge William did not follow any career options - except for writing - rather he developed a resistance &quot;to having his life shaped for him by those he did not like and in ways he could not approve&quot; (Gill 40). <br /> &quot;Unprepared for any profession, rootless, virtually penniless, bitterly hostile to his own country’s opposition to the French, he lived in London in the company of radicals like William Godwin and learned to feel a profound sympathy for the abandoned mothers, beggars, children, vagrants, and victims of England’s wars who began to march through the sombre poems he began writing at this time.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth]<br /> His reunion with his sister [[Dorothy Wordsworth]] in 1795 ended his dark period. The siblings moved to Alfoxden House, near Bristol. At that time his friendship with poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] developed, which &quot;would change both poets’ lives and alter the course of English poetry&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> In 1802 William married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth] They had three sons and two daughters.<br /> <br /> He then returned to England to marry Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend, and start an English family, which had grown to three sons and two daughters by 1810.<br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth's works can be roughly divided into two phases: &quot;the young Romantic revolutionary and the aging Tory humanist&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth].<br /> <br /> , risen into what John Keats called the “Egotistical Sublime.” Little of Wordsworth’s later verse matches the best of his earlier years.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=4142 2010-01-25T18:48:02Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: &quot;Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] The University of Leipzig refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop and elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> == Philosophy ==<br /> <br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, Leibniz is considered a rationalist – as opposed to empiricists (e.g. [[Francis Bacon]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]]) (Kunzmann et al. 113). &quot;Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality&quot; (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. &quot;Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consistent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities&quot; (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5): ''Discours de métaphysique'' (1685) - Correspondence with Arnauld (1686-90) – ''The New System'' (1695) – Letters to John Bernoulli (1698) – Letters to de Volder (1699-1706) – Letters to the Bosses (1706-16) – ''Theodicy'' (1710) – ''Principles of Nature and of Grace'' (1712-1714) – Correspondence with Clarke (1715-16).<br /> <br /> == Mathematics ==<br /> <br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time [[Isaac Newton]] developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and is considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> == Other subjects ==<br /> <br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> &quot;Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz]<br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz]<br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. ''dtv-Atlas Philosophie''. 14th ed. Munich: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. ''Leibniz: An Introduction''. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. &quot;Introduction&quot;. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4139 2010-01-25T18:31:05Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). At the age of seven, William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire after Ann Wordsworth died, until he was seventeen.<br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> &quot;William Wordsworth.&quot; Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2010 &lt;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth&gt;.<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4138 2010-01-25T18:24:55Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1). At the age of seven, William, his three brothers and his sister Dorothy lost their mother in March 1778. John Wordsworth died six years later at the age of 42. Together with his older brother Richard, William was sent to Hawkshead boarding-school in Lancashire after Ann Wordsworth died, until he was seventeen.<br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth (accessed 25 Jan 2010)<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4137 2010-01-25T18:10:33Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1).<br /> <br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth (accessed 25 Jan 2010)<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4136 2010-01-25T17:56:17Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1).<br /> <br /> <br /> == Works ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647975/William-Wordsworth (access 25 Jan 2010)<br /> <br /> Gill, Stephen. ''William Wordsworth. A Life''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.<br /> <br /> Masson, Rosaline. ''Wordsworth''. London: T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack, 1912.<br /> <br /> Wordsworth, Jonathan, Michael C. Jaye, and Robert Woof eds. ''William Wordsworth and the Age of English Romanticism''. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4135 2010-01-25T17:48:57Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.<br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770. His parents John and Ann Wordsworth lived in Cockermouth back then, a small town in Cumberland, England. Working as an attorney and later appointed law agent and land stewart (Masson 5), William's father had good connections in society despite his very young age (Gill 1).</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=William_Wordsworth&diff=4134 2010-01-25T17:42:30Z

<p>JuliaS: Created page with &#039;1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.&#039;</p> <hr /> <div>1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=3766 2009-12-14T21:29:54Z

<p>JuliaS: /* Philosophy */</p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: &quot;Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] The University of Leipzig refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop and elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> == Philosophy ==<br /> <br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, Leibniz is considered a rationalist – as opposed to empiricists (e.g. [[Francis Bacon]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]]) (Kunzmann et al. 113). &quot;Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality&quot; (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. &quot;Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consistent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities&quot; (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5): ''Discours de métaphysique'' (1685) - Correspondence with Arnauld (1686-90) – ''The New System'' (1695) – Letters to John Bernoulli (1698) – Letters to de Volder (1699-1706) – Letters to the Bosses (1706-16) – ''Theodicy'' (1710) – ''Principles of Nature and of Grace'' (1712-1714) – Correspondence with Clarke (1715-16).<br /> <br /> == Mathematics ==<br /> <br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time [[Isaac Newton]] developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and is considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> == Other subjects ==<br /> <br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> &quot;Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz].<br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz].<br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. ''dtv-Atlas Philosophie''. 14th ed. Munich: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. ''Leibniz: An Introduction''. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. &quot;Introduction&quot;. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=3765 2009-12-14T21:29:32Z

<p>JuliaS: /* Mathematics */</p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: &quot;Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] The University of Leipzig refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop and elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> == Philosophy ==<br /> <br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, Leibniz is considered a rationalist – as opposed to empiricists (e.g. [[Francis Bacon]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]]) (Kunzmann et al. 113). &quot;Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality&quot; (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. &quot;Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consistent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities&quot; (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5): ''Discours de métaphysique'' (1685) - Correspondence with Arnauld (1686-90) – ''The New System'' (1695) – Letters to John Bernoulli (1698) – Letters to de Volder (1699-1706) – Letters to the Bosses (1706-16) – ''Theodicy'' (1710) – ''Principles of Nature and of Grace'' (1712-1714) – Correspondence with Clarke (1715-16). <br /> <br /> == Mathematics ==<br /> <br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time [[Isaac Newton]] developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and is considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> == Other subjects ==<br /> <br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> &quot;Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz].<br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz].<br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. ''dtv-Atlas Philosophie''. 14th ed. Munich: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. ''Leibniz: An Introduction''. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. &quot;Introduction&quot;. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=3764 2009-12-14T21:29:05Z

<p>JuliaS: /* Reflection */</p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: &quot;Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] The University of Leipzig refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop and elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> == Philosophy ==<br /> <br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, Leibniz is considered a rationalist – as opposed to empiricists (e.g. [[Francis Bacon]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]]) (Kunzmann et al. 113). &quot;Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality&quot; (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. &quot;Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consistent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities&quot; (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5): ''Discours de métaphysique'' (1685) - Correspondence with Arnauld (1686-90) – ''The New System'' (1695) – Letters to John Bernoulli (1698) – Letters to de Volder (1699-1706) – Letters to the Bosses (1706-16) – ''Theodicy'' (1710) – ''Principles of Nature and of Grace'' (1712-1714) – Correspondence with Clarke (1715-16). <br /> <br /> == Mathematics ==<br /> <br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time [[Isaac Newton]] developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> == Other subjects ==<br /> <br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> &quot;Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz].<br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz].<br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. ''dtv-Atlas Philosophie''. 14th ed. Munich: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. ''Leibniz: An Introduction''. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. &quot;Introduction&quot;. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=3763 2009-12-14T21:26:52Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: &quot;Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] The University of Leipzig refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop and elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> == Philosophy ==<br /> <br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, Leibniz is considered a rationalist – as opposed to empiricists (e.g. [[Francis Bacon]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]]) (Kunzmann et al. 113). &quot;Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality&quot; (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. &quot;Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consistent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities&quot; (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5): ''Discours de métaphysique'' (1685) - Correspondence with Arnauld (1686-90) – ''The New System'' (1695) – Letters to John Bernoulli (1698) – Letters to de Volder (1699-1706) – Letters to the Bosses (1706-16) – ''Theodicy'' (1710) – ''Principles of Nature and of Grace'' (1712-1714) – Correspondence with Clarke (1715-16). <br /> <br /> == Mathematics ==<br /> <br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time [[Isaac Newton]] developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> == Other subjects ==<br /> <br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> &quot;Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz].<br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz].<br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. ''dtv-Atlas Philosophie''. 14th ed. Munich: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. ''Leibniz: An Introduction''. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. &quot;Introduction&quot;. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=3687 2009-12-13T18:35:55Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: &quot;Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] The University of Leipzig refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop an elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Philosophy ==<br /> <br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th century, Leibniz is considered a Rationalist – as opposed to Empiricists (e.g. Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke) (Kunzmann et al. 113). &quot;Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality&quot; (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. &quot;Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consinstent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities&quot; (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5): Discours de métaphysique (1685) - Correspondence with Arnauld (1686-90) – The New System (1695) – Letters to John Bernoulli (1698) – Letters to de Volder (1699-1706) – Letters to the Bosses (1706-16) – Theodicy (1710) – Principles of Nature and of Grace (1712-1714) – Correspondence with Clarke (1715-16). <br /> <br /> <br /> == Mathematics ==<br /> <br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time Isaac Newton developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Other subjects ==<br /> <br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> &quot;Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization&quot;. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. ''dtv-Atlas Philosophie''. 14th ed. Munich: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. ''Leibniz: An Introduction''. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. &quot;Introduction&quot;. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=3686 2009-12-13T16:18:55Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: &quot;Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] The University of Leipzig refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop an elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Philosophy ==<br /> <br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th century, Leibniz is considered a Rationalist – as opposed to Empiricists (e.g. Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke) (Kunzmann et al. 113). &quot;Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality&quot; (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. &quot;Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consinstent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities&quot; (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5): Discours de métaphysique (1685) - Correspondence with Arnauld (1686-90) – The New System (1695) – Letters to John Bernoulli (1698) – Letters to de Volder (1699-1706) – Letters to the Bosses (1706-16) – Theodicy (1710) – Principles of Nature and of Grace (1712-1714) – Correspondence with Clarke (1715-16). <br /> <br /> <br /> == Mathematics ==<br /> <br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time Isaac Newton developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Other subjects ==<br /> <br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> &quot;Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization&quot;. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. ''dtv-Atlas Philosophie''. 14th ed. Munich: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. ''Leibniz: An Introduction''. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. &quot;Introduction&quot;. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=3685 2009-12-13T16:15:06Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life ==<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: &quot;Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz] The University of Leipzig refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop an elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Philosophy ==<br /> <br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th century, Leibniz is considered a Rationalist – as opposed to Empiricists (e.g. Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke) (Kunzmann et al. 113). &quot;Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality&quot; (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. &quot;Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consinstent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities&quot; (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5):<br /> 1685 – Discours de métaphysique<br /> 1686-90 – Correspondence with Arnauld<br /> 1695 – The New System<br /> 1698 – Letters to John Bernoulli<br /> 1699-1706 – Letters to de Volder <br /> 1706-16 – Letters to the Bosses<br /> 1710 – Theodicy <br /> 1712-1714 – Principles of Nature and of Grace<br /> 1715-16 – Correspondence with Clarke<br /> <br /> <br /> == Mathematics ==<br /> <br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time Isaac Newton developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Other subjects ==<br /> <br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> &quot;Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten&quot;.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reflection ==<br /> <br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization&quot;. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. ''dtv-Atlas Philosophie''. 14th ed. München: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. ''Leibniz: An Introduction''. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. &quot;Introduction&quot;. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&diff=3684 2009-12-13T16:06:49Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>1646-1716. German philosopher, mathematician, librarian.<br /> <br /> Life<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, on 1 July 1646. His father who was a lawyer and professor of philosophy died early in 1652. For most of the time Leibniz did not attend school, but was rather self-taught in the library of his father. [link] In 1661, at the early age of fifteen, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig to study law. Here he came across the thoughts and achievements of well-known scientists and philosophers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and René Descartes: “Leibniz dreamed of reconciling—a verb that he did not hesitate to use time and again throughout his career—these modern thinkers with the Aristotle of the Scholastics.” [link]. Leipzig university refused to accept Leibniz’ application for a doctor’s degree of law in 1666. Therefore he continued his studies in Jena and Altdorf (near Nurnberg), where he achieved his doctor’s degree and was offered to become professor afterwards. However, Leibniz went to Mainz where he worked for the archbishop an elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn. His work was primarily based on political and diplomatic activities. One of his lifelong objectives was to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany, as well as the Lutherans and Calvinists (Broad 1). During a three-year-stay in Paris (1673-1676) and after Johann Philipp von Schönborn died, he dedicated his work to mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy in detail. <br /> For forty years Leibniz worked as librarian and privy councillor in Hanover. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover, on 14 November 1716.<br /> <br /> <br /> Philosophy<br /> With regards to the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th century, Leibniz is considered a Rationalist – as opposed to Empiricists (e.g. Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke) (Kunzmann et al. 113). “Leibniz shares with Descartes and Spinoza the deep conviction that human reason is competent to discover the ultimate nature of reality” (Jolley 2). One of the core elements in Leibnizian philosophy is monadology. “Far from being a metaphysical fairy tale, the theory of monads is, in fact, a solution to the problem of determining the fundamental building-blocks of reality consinstent with Leibniz’s conviction that matter is infinitely divisible […] Leibniz argues that all that fundamentally exists is minds (strictly, souls), and that bodies can somehow be reduced to mental entities” (ibid.).<br /> <br /> His most important philosophical works are (according to Broad 4/5):<br /> 1685 – Discours de métaphysique<br /> 1686-90 – Correspondence with Arnauld<br /> 1695 – The New System<br /> 1698 – Letters to John Bernoulli<br /> 1699-1706 – Letters to de Volder <br /> 1706-16 – Letters to the Bosses<br /> 1710 – Theodicy <br /> 1712-1714 – Principles of Nature and of Grace<br /> 1715-16 – Correspondence with Clarke<br /> <br /> Mathematics<br /> In 1675 Leibniz laid the foundations of integral and differential calculus. His discovery was not published until 1684. At the same time Isaac Newton developed his own system of infinitesimal calculus, which was published in 1684 – independently from Leibniz.<br /> Leibniz was also interested in logic and considered one of the founders of modern symbolic logic.<br /> <br /> Miscellaneous<br /> As a universal scholar, Leibniz was also writing on law, theology, history and physics.<br /> “Trying to make himself useful in all ways, Leibniz proposed that education be made more practical, that academies be founded; he worked on hydraulic presses, windmills, lamps, submarines, clocks, and a wide variety of mechanical devices; he devised a means of perfecting carriages and experimented with phosphorus. He also developed a water pump run by windmills […] Leibniz is considered to be among the creators of geology because of the observations he compiled there, including the hypothesis that the Earth was at first molten. [link].<br /> <br /> Reflection<br /> “Leibniz was probably the most universal genius that there had ever been in Europe” (Broad 3). He has had a great influence in Germany and Europe until now (Broad 5). However, many of Leibniz’ essays and texts were not published until his death. And even today there is no complete collection of his writings. “His Philosophy was popularized and simplified by [German philosopher Christian] Wolff, and it became the orthodox system taught to students in German universities in the eighteenth century” (ibid.).<br /> “Leibniz was a man of medium height with a stoop, broad-shouldered but bandy-legged, as capable of thinking for several days sitting in the same chair as of travelling the roads of Europe summer and winter. He was an indefatigable worker, a universal letter writer (he had more than 600 correspondents), a patriot and cosmopolitan, a great scientist, and one of the most powerful spirits of Western civilization.” [link]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Sources<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335266/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz<br /> <br /> Kunzmann, Peter, Franz-Peter Burkhard, and Franz Wiedmann eds. dtv-Atlas Philosophie. 14th ed. München: dtv, 2009, 113-115.<br /> <br /> Broad, Charlie Dunbar. Leibniz: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.<br /> <br /> Jolley, Nicholas. “Introduction”. The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Nicholas Jolley ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1995, 1-17.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3422 2009-11-18T15:23:08Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called &quot;Rising of 1641&quot;), which was quelled by [[Oliver Cromwell]] in 1649 and the [[Battle of the Boyne]]. <br /> <br /> The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and consequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the [[Treaty of Limerick]] which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces and from political positions; between 1728 and 1793 they were disenfranchised (i.e. they were not allowed to vote). They were also excluded from positions in public offices. Catholic children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore Catholics were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five pounds (and Protestants were allowed to confiscate any horse that seemed to be more valuable than five pounds). Clergy had to register and there could only remain one clergyman for each community. Bishops were expelled.<br /> <br /> Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. According to penal legislation Irish Catholics were not allowed to buy land or inherit land from Protestants nor were they allowed to hold long leases on land. Equal separation of inherited land amongst the sons was overruled in case the eldest conformed to the Anglican faith - then he received the whole property.<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws also included non-members of the Church of Ireland, the so called Dissenters, which were in this case mostly Presbyterians. However, there were differences in the forms of discriminaton.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants [...]&quot; (Darby 1983, 15/16).<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws resulted in a complete shift concerning property. Before 1641 more than half of Irish land belonged to the Irish Catholics, whereas in 1703 their share fell to 14 per cent (5 per cent in Ulster); in 1776 ninety-five per cent of Irish land was in the hands of Protestants (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> As many Irish Catholics were too poor to buy land - regardless of the Penal Laws - the restrictions on landownership and voting rights did not affect this part of the population. Nevertheless the laws were seen as a &quot;painful symbol&quot; of the Catholics' defeat and proved the anti-Catholic atmosphere of that time (Otto 26). <br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly. This led to the formation of underground organisations (e.g. &quot;hedge schools&quot;, schools for Catholics) which maintained Catholic worship and the Irish language (Darby 1983, 16). <br /> <br /> The consequences of the Penal Laws and the anti-Catholic mood in Ireland can be seen throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. After the Independence of the Southern Irish Provinces in 1922, the Northern Provinces remained in the United Kingdom. The Northern Irish Conflict having its peak in the 1970s as this conflict emerges historically after the British settlement in Ireland: &quot;Within several generations the broad outlines of the conflict had been established. The territory contained two groups who differed in political allegiance, religious practice and cultural values. One group believed that their land had been stolen, while the other was in a constant state of apprehension. Northern Ireland still suffers from the problems of rival ethnic groups living cheek by jowl and in suspicion of each other&quot; (Darby 1995).<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Relaxation:'''<br /> <br /> As not only Catholics but also Protestants were successively aiming at a more independent Ireland from Britain and therefore seeking a certain cohesion between both sides the Penal Laws were abolished by the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1791), the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), the Roman Catholic Charities Act (1832), and the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1926).[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983, 13-31.<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;Conflict in Northern Ireland: A Background Essay.&quot; Facets of the Conflict in Northern Ireland. Ed. Seamus Dunn. 1995. CAIN – Conflict Archive on the Internet, University of Ulster. 08 Nov 2009. &lt;http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/facets.htm&gt;<br /> <br /> Kandel, Johannes. ''Der Nordirland-Konflikt: Von seinen historischen Wurzeln bis zur Gegenwart''. Bonn: Dietz, 2005. <br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3229 2009-11-08T20:44:25Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called &quot;Rising of 1641&quot;), which was quelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 and the Battle of the Boyne. <br /> <br /> The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and consequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the Treaty of Limerick which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces and from political positions; between 1728 and 1793 they were defranchised. They were also excluded from positions in public offices. Catholic children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore they were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five Pounds. Clergy had to register and there could only remain one clergyman for each community. Bishops were expelled.<br /> <br /> Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. According to penal legislation Irish Catholics were not allowed to buy land or inherit land from Protestants nor were they allowed to hold long leases on land. Equal separation of inherited land amongst the sons was overruled in case the eldest conformed to Anglican faith - then he received the whole property.<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws also included non-members of the Church of Ireland, the so called Dissenters, which were in this case mostly Presbyterians. However, there were differences in the forms of discriminaton.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants [...]&quot; (Darby 1983, 15/16).<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws resulted in a complete shift concerning property. Before 1641 more than half of Irish land belonged to the Irish Catholics, whereas in 1703 their share fell to 14 per cent (5 per cent in Ulster); in 1776 ninety-five per cent of Irish land was in the hands of Protestants (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> As many Irish Catholics were too poor to buy land - regardless of the Penal Laws - the restrictions on landownership and voting rights did not affect this part of the population. Nevertheless the laws were seen as a &quot;painful symbol&quot; of the Catholics defeat and proved the anti-Catholic atmosphere of that time (Otto 26). <br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly. This led to the formation of underground organisations which maintained Catholic worship and the Irish language (Darby 1983, 16). <br /> <br /> The consequences of the Penal Laws and the anti-Catholic mood in Ireland can be seen in relation to the Northern Irish Conflict having its peak in the 1970s as this conflict historically emerges after the British settlement in Ireland: &quot;Within several generations the broad outlines of the conflict had been established. The territory contained two groups who differed in political allegiance, religious practice and cultural values. One group believed that their land had been stolen, while the other was in a constant state of apprehension. Northern Ireland still suffers from the problems of rival ethnic groups living cheek by jowl and in suspicion of each other&quot; (Darby 1995).<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Relaxation:'''<br /> <br /> As not only Catholics but also Protestants were successively aiming at a more independent Ireland from Britain and therefore seeking a certain cohesion between both sides the Penal Laws were abolished by the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1791), the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), the Roman Catholic Charities Act (1832), and the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1926).[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;Conflict in Northern Ireland: A Background Essay.&quot; Facets of the Conflict in Northern Ireland. Ed. Seamus Dunn. 1995. CAIN – Conflict Archive on the Internet, University of Ulster. 08 Nov 2009. &lt;http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/facets.htm&gt;<br /> <br /> Kandel, Johannes. ''Der Nordirland-Konflikt: Von seinen historischen Wurzeln bis zur Gegenwart''. Bonn: Dietz, 2005. 98-488.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3228 2009-11-08T20:42:49Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called &quot;Rising of 1641&quot;), which was quelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 and the Battle of the Boyne. <br /> <br /> The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and consequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the Treaty of Limerick which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces and from political positions; between 1728 and 1793 they were defranchised. They were also excluded from positions in public offices. Catholic children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore they were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five Pounds. Clergy had to register and there could only remain one clergyman for each community. Bishops were expelled.<br /> <br /> Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. According to penal legislation Irish Catholics were not allowed to buy land or inherit land from Protestants nor were they allowed to hold long leases on land. Equal separation of inherited land amongst the sons was overruled in case the eldest conformed to Anglican faith - then he received the whole property.<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws also included non-members of the Church of Ireland, the so called Dissenters, which were in this case mostly Presbyterians. However, there were differences in the forms of discriminaton.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants [...]&quot; (Darby 15/16).<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws resulted in a complete shift concerning property. Before 1641 more than half of Irish land belonged to the Irish Catholics, whereas in 1703 their share fell to 14 per cent (5 per cent in Ulster); in 1776 ninety-five per cent of Irish land was in the hands of Protestants (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> As many Irish Catholics were too poor to buy land - regardless of the Penal Laws - the restrictions on landownership and voting rights did not affect this part of the population. Nevertheless the laws were seen as a &quot;painful symbol&quot; of the Catholics defeat and proved the anti-Catholic atmosphere of that time (Otto 26). <br /> <br /> The consequences of the Penal Laws and the anti-Catholic mood in Ireland can be seen in relation to the Northern Irish Conflict having its peak in the 1970s as this conflict historically emerges after the British settlement in Ireland: &quot;Within several generations the broad outlines of the conflict had been established. The territory contained two groups who differed in political allegiance, religious practice and cultural values. One group believed that their land had been stolen, while the other was in a constant state of apprehension. Northern Ireland still suffers from the problems of rival ethnic groups living cheek by jowl and in suspicion of each other&quot; (Darby<br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly. This led to the formation of underground organisations which maintained Catholic worship and the Irish language (Darby 16). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Relaxation:'''<br /> <br /> As not only Catholics but also Protestants were successively aiming at a more independent Ireland from Britain and therefore seeking a certain cohesion between both sides the Penal Laws were abolished by the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1791), the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), the Roman Catholic Charities Act (1832), and the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1926).[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Darby, John. “Conflict in Northern Ireland: A Background Essay.” Facets of the Conflict in Northern Ireland. Ed. Seamus Dunn. 1995. CAIN – Conflict Archive on the Internet, University of Ulster. 10 June 2009. &lt;http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/facets.htm&gt;<br /> <br /> Kandel, Johannes. ''Der Nordirland-Konflikt: Von seinen historischen Wurzeln bis zur Gegenwart''. Bonn: Dietz, 2005. 98-488.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3227 2009-11-08T20:41:55Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called &quot;Rising of 1641&quot;), which was quelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 and the Battle of the Boyne. <br /> <br /> The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and consequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the Treaty of Limerick which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces and from political positions; between 1728 and 1793 they were defranchised. They were also excluded from positions in public offices. Catholic children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore they were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five Pounds. Clergy had to register and there could only remain one clergyman for each community. Bishops were expelled.<br /> <br /> Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. According to penal legislation Irish Catholics were not allowed to buy land or inherit land from Protestants nor were they allowed to hold long leases on land. Equal separation of inherited land amongst the sons was overruled in case the eldest conformed to Anglican faith - then he received the whole property.<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws also included non-members of the Church of Ireland, the so called Dissenters, which were in this case mostly Presbyterians. However, there were differences in the forms of discriminaton.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants [...]&quot; (Darby 15/16).<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws resulted in a complete shift concerning property. Before 1641 more than half of Irish land belonged to the Irish Catholics, whereas in 1703 their share fell to 14 per cent (5 per cent in Ulster); in 1776 ninety-five per cent of Irish land was in the hands of Protestants (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> As many Irish Catholics were too poor to buy land - regardless of the Penal Laws - the restrictions on landownership and voting rights did not affect this part of the population. Nevertheless the laws were seen as a &quot;painful symbol&quot; of the Catholics defeat and proved the anti-Catholic atmosphere of that time (Otto 26). <br /> <br /> The consequences of the Penal Laws and the anti-Catholic mood in Ireland can be seen in relation to the Northern Irish Conflict having its peak in the 1970s as this conflict historically emerges after the British settlement in Ireland: &quot;Within several generations the broad outlines of the conflict had been established. The territory contained two groups who differed in political allegiance, religious practice and cultural values. One group believed that their land had been stolen, while the other was in a constant state of apprehension. Northern Ireland still suffers from the problems of rival ethnic groups living cheek by jowl and in suspicion of each other&quot; (Darby<br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly. This led to the formation of underground organisations which maintained Catholic worship and the Irish language (Darby 16). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Relaxation:'''<br /> <br /> As not only Catholics but also Protestants were successively aiming at a more independent Ireland from Britain and therefore seeking a certain cohesion between both sides the Penal Laws were abolished by the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1791), the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), the Roman Catholic Charities Act (1832), and the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1926).[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Darby, John. “Conflict in Northern Ireland: A Background Essay.” Facets of the Conflict in Northern Ireland. Ed. Seamus Dunn. 1995. CAIN – Conflict Archive on the Internet, University of Ulster. 10 June 2009.[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/facets.htm]<br /> <br /> Kandel, Johannes. ''Der Nordirland-Konflikt: Von seinen historischen Wurzeln bis zur Gegenwart''. Bonn: Dietz, 2005. 98-488.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3226 2009-11-08T20:30:52Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called &quot;Rising of 1641&quot;), which was quelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 and the Battle of the Boyne. <br /> <br /> The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and consequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the Treaty of Limerick which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces and from political positions; between 1728 and 1793 they were defranchised. They were also excluded from positions in public offices. Catholic children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore they were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five Pounds. Clergy had to register and there could only remain one clergyman for each community. Bishops were expelled.<br /> <br /> Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. According to penal legislation Irish Catholics were not allowed to buy land or inherit land from Protestants nor were they allowed to hold long leases on land. Equal separation of inherited land amongst the sons was overruled in case the eldest conformed to Anglican faith - then he received the whole property.<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws also included non-members of the Church of Ireland, the so called Dissenters, which were in this case mostly Presbyterians. However, there were differences in the forms of discriminaton.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants [...]&quot; (Darby 15/16).<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws resulted in a complete shift concerning property. Before 1641 more than half of Irish land belonged to the Irish Catholics, whereas in 1703 their share fell to 14 per cent (5 per cent in Ulster); in 1776 ninety-five per cent of Irish land was in the hands of Protestants (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> As many Irish Catholics were too poor to buy land - regardless of the Penal Laws - the restrictions on landownership and voting rights did not affect this part of the population. Nevertheless the laws were seen as a &quot;painful symbol of their defeat&quot; (Otto 26).<br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly. This led to the formation of underground organisations which maintained Catholic worship and the Irish language. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Relaxation:'''<br /> <br /> As not only Catholics but also Protestants were successively aiming at a more independent Ireland from Britain and therefore seeking a certain cohesion between both sides the Penal Laws were abolished by the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1791), the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), the Roman Catholic Charities Act (1832), and the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1926).[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Kandel, Johannes. ''Der Nordirland-Konflikt: Von seinen historischen Wurzeln bis zur Gegenwart''. Bonn: Dietz, 2005. 98-488.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3225 2009-11-08T20:30:18Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called &quot;Rising of 1641&quot;), which was quelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 and the Battle of the Boyne. <br /> <br /> The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and consequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the Treaty of Limerick which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces and from political positions; between 1728 and 1793 they were defranchised. They were also excluded from positions in public offices. Catholic children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore they were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five Pounds. Clergy had to register and there could only remain one clergyman for each community. Bishops were expelled.<br /> <br /> Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. According to penal legislation Irish Catholics were not allowed to buy land or inherit land from Protestants nor were they allowed to hold long leases on land. Equal separation of inherited land amongst the sons was overruled in case the eldest conformed to Anglican faith - then he received the whole property.<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws also included non-members of the Church of Ireland, the so called Dissenters, which were in this case mostly Presbyterians. However, there were differences in the forms of discriminaton.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants [...]&quot; (Darby 15/16).<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws resulted in a complete shift concerning property. Before 1641 more than half of Irish land belonged to the Irish Catholics, whereas in 1703 their share fell to 14 per cent (5 per cent in Ulster); in 1776 ninety-five per cent of Irish land was in the hands of Protestants (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> As many Irish Catholics were too poor to buy land - regardless of the Penal Laws - the restrictions on landownership and voting rights did not affect this part of the population. Nevertheless the laws were seen as a &quot;painful symbol of their defeat&quot; (Otto 26).<br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly. This led to the formation of underground organisations which maintained Catholic worship and the Irish language. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Relaxation:'''<br /> <br /> As not only Catholics but also Protestants were successively aiming at a more independent Ireland from Britain and therefore seeking a certain cohesion between both sides the Penal Laws were abolished by the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1791), the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), the Roman Catholic Charities Act (1832), and the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1926).[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293754/Ireland/22988/The-18th-century#ref=ref316012<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Kandel, Johannes. ''Der Nordirland-Konflikt: Von seinen historischen Wurzeln bis zur Gegenwart''. Bonn: Dietz, 2005. 98-488.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3224 2009-11-08T20:29:55Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called &quot;Rising of 1641&quot;), which was quelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 and the Battle of the Boyne. <br /> <br /> The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and consequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the Treaty of Limerick which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces and from political positions; between 1728 and 1793 they were defranchised. They were also excluded from positions in public offices. Catholic children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore they were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five Pounds. Clergy had to register and there could only remain one clergyman for each community. Bishops were expelled.<br /> <br /> Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. According to penal legislation Irish Catholics were not allowed to buy land or inherit land from Protestants nor were they allowed to hold long leases on land. Equal separation of inherited land amongst the sons was overruled in case the eldest conformed to Anglican faith - then he received the whole property.<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws also included non-members of the Church of Ireland, the so called Dissenters, which were in this case mostly Presbyterians. However, there were differences in the forms of discriminaton.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants [...]&quot; (Darby 15/16).<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws resulted in a complete shift concerning property. Before 1641 more than half of Irish land belonged to the Irish Catholics, whereas in 1703 their share fell to 14 per cent (5 per cent in Ulster); in 1776 ninety-five per cent of Irish land was in the hands of Protestants (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> As many Irish Catholics were too poor to buy land - regardless of the Penal Laws - the restrictions on landownership and voting rights did not affect this part of the population. Nevertheless the laws were seen as a &quot;painful symbol of their defeat&quot; (Otto 26).<br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly. This led to the formation of underground organisations which maintained Catholic worship and the Irish language. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Relaxation:'''<br /> <br /> As not only Catholics but also Protestants were successively aiming at a more independent Ireland from Britain and therefore seeking a certain cohesion between both sides the Penal Laws were abolished by the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1791), the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), the Roman Catholic Charities Act (1832), and the Roman Catholic Relief Act (1926).[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449591/Penal-Laws]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293754/Ireland/22988/The-18th-century#ref=ref316012]<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Kandel, Johannes. ''Der Nordirland-Konflikt: Von seinen historischen Wurzeln bis zur Gegenwart''. Bonn: Dietz, 2005. 98-488.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3223 2009-11-08T20:22:27Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called &quot;Rising of 1641&quot;), which was quelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 and the Battle of the Boyne. <br /> <br /> The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and consequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the Treaty of Limerick which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces and from political positions; between 1728 and 1793 they were defranchised. They were also excluded from positions in public offices. Catholic children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore they were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five Pounds. Clergy had to register and there could only remain one clergyman for each community. Bishops were expelled.<br /> <br /> Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. According to penal legislation Irish Catholics were not allowed to buy land or inherit land from Protestants nor were they allowed to hold long leases on land. Equal separation of inherited land amongst the sons was overruled in case the eldest conformed to Anglican faith - then he received the whole property.<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws also included non-members of the Church of Ireland, the so called Dissenters, which were in this case mostly Presbyterians. However, there were differences in the forms of discriminaton.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants [...]&quot; (Darby 15/16).<br /> <br /> The Penal Laws resulted in a complete shift concerning property. Before 1641 more than half of Irish land belonged to the Irish Catholics, whereas in 1703 their share fell to 14 per cent (5 per cent in Ulster); in 1776 ninety-five per cent of Irish land was in the hands of Protestants (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> As many Irish Catholics were too poor to buy land - regardless of the Penal Laws - the restrictions on landownership and voting rights did not affect this part of the population. Nevertheless the laws were seen as a &quot;painful symbol of their defeat&quot; (Otto 26).<br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly. This led to the formation of underground organisations which maintained Catholic worship and the Irish language.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Kandel, Johannes. ''Der Nordirland-Konflikt: Von seinen historischen Wurzeln bis zur Gegenwart''. Bonn: Dietz, 2005. 98-488.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3222 2009-11-08T19:42:32Z

<p>JuliaS: </p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). They included laws about religious practices as well as Catholic landownership.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> The Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the successive colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century caused several conflicts between the native Irish and the dominating Protestant settlers. Two key events in this context which excacerbated the situation were the Irish rebellion (also called the Rising of 1641), which was quelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 and the Battle of the Boyne. The Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church who dominated the native Irish as landowners and in Parliament, were therefore still afraid of potential riots and cosequently initiated laws to ensure the suppression of the Irish Catholics. Enforced under Queen Anne the laws challenged the agreements of the Treaty of Limerick which was signed by William of Orange (Otto 25).<br /> <br /> At first Catholics were not allowed to carry any weapons and were excluded from the armed forces. Their children were not allowed to attend school. Furthermore they were not allowed to own a horse worth more than five Pounds. Much more effective were several laws concerning landownership. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants&quot; (Darby 15/16).<br /> <br /> On the other hand the Catholic Irish continued their religious practices non-publicly.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS https://el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=Penal_Laws&diff=3221 2009-11-08T19:11:48Z

<p>JuliaS: Created page with &#039;The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). ---- In the course of the Plan…&#039;</p> <hr /> <div>The &quot;Penal Laws&quot; or &quot;Popery Laws&quot; were established by the Irish Parliament against Roman Catholics in Ireland throughout the 1690s (until 1746). <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> In the course of the Plantation of Ulster in 1609 and the colonisation of the whole island of Ireland throughout the 17th century the Protestant Ascendancy, members of the Protestant Episcopalian church which dominated the native Irish as landowners and in Parliament, <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Consequences:'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The laws were of vital importance in broadening the differences between the Irish establishment and its opponents [...] Some of these laws, and notably those affecting property, were rigidly enforced, while others were unenforcable. Their main effects were to entrench the divide between Catholics and Protestants&quot; (Darby 15/16).<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> '''Sources:'''<br /> <br /> Darby, John. &quot;The Historical Background.&quot; ''Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict''. Ed. John Darby. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1983.<br /> <br /> Otto, Frank. ''Der Nordirlandkonflikt: Ursprung, Verlauf, Perspektiven''. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005.</div>

JuliaS