British Culture - User contributions [en]

Arthur Conan Doyle

2011-01-17T21:27:20Z

Julia K: Created page with 'Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was a 19th century English writer who is most famous for creating Sherlock Holmes. == Life == Doyle was born to a Catholic family in Edinburgh, Ma…'

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was a 19th century English writer who is most famous for creating Sherlock Holmes.

== Life ==

Doyle was born to a Catholic family in Edinburgh, May 22, 1859. Although his intellectual, aristocratic grandfathers and uncles lived in London Arthur’s parents had moved to Edinburgh in the hope of advancing his father’s career in architecture which actually did not happen. Arthur was sent to a Jesuit boarding school. When his father fell ill in 1879 the family was financially protected by their lodger, B. C. Waller, but still Arthur as the new head of family was the one responsible for them.

He entered the University of Scotland where he graduated in medicine in 1885. The same year he married Louise Hawkins with whom he had two children. When he broke the news to his greater family that he planned on turning away from organized religions in general, all the financial support was put to a stop at once. Therefore Arthur needed to earn money and worked as ship’s doctor before opening a medical practice in Southsea (in the county of Hampshire, southern England). However, he did not find his profession mentally fulfilling so he started writing novels in his spare time. His first major success as a writer was the first Sherlock Holmes novel ''A Study in Scarlet'' (1887). His subsequent stories were either published as books or in magazines and were an instant success – in terms of popularity and also financially. Although Doyle's other works were not exactly failures, they did not gain nearly as much attention as the ''Holmes'' stories.

In 1893 his wife Louise became seriously ill and finally died in 1900. Doyle married again in 1907 and he and his new wife Jean Leckie had three children.

After his first wife’s death Doyle’s political inclination showed in his visit to South Africa where he wrote about the Boer War. As a result of his writing a pro-war book and advocating the English cause in the matter as well as for his medical volunteer work in the field he was knighted in 1902. His other political activities involved advocating two unfairly convicted criminals who he exonerated with the help of deduction – like his famous detective figure Sherlock Holmes. He also “campaign[ed] for lifesaving equipment and body armour for the navy” (Yoder).

His dedication shifted towards spiritualism when his eldest son along with Doyle’s brother, nephew and brother-in-law died in or as a consequence of injuries suffered in World War I. He subsequently travelled to America and Europe in order to find like-minded people and to write several books on the subject (e.g. ''The Coming of the Fairies''). Arthur Conan Doyle who had been suffering from heart disease for quite some time died in Crowborough (East Sussex), July 7, 1930, allegedly believing that death was but a grand new adventure.

== Work ==

Doyle is one of the most famous authors of detective novels, a genre that developed in the middle of the 19th century, starting with [[Edgar Allan Poe]]’s detective character Auguste Dupin in the 1840s. In Sherlock Holmes Doyle developed Poe’s idea of the character further and established the element of surprise and the strategy of deduction as the leading characteristics of the detective story. Deduction and logic in general are significant for the way of thinking in the latter half of the 19th century when people were starting to get less superstitious as a result of several factors like the Enlightenment movement in the 18th century, and also due to scientific discoveries (e.g. by [[Charles Darwin]]). This development was reflected in literature, too. Consequently, Holmes’s scientific knowledge plays a major role in solving the cases – despite Doyle’s own spiritual inclinations. Tying in with this is that in the detective story there is always a reasonable explanation for the supernatural, a trend that also most of the fin-de-siècle Gothic novels picked up on. This is especially noteworthy because the detective novel originally was a derivative of the 18th century Gothic novel a core feature of which was the supernatural as a source of horror and terror.

Doyle’s contribution to literary theory that is most highly regarded today is that he established a scheme for the detective novel where the protagonists’ characteristics as well as those of minor characters and certain patterns and settings recur time and again – but always slightly varied to keep the stories from getting boring.

Another strategy Doyle applies is to make Dr. Watson, Holmes’s assistant, the narrator of the stories. In doing this, Doyle not only created a literary foil of Holmes but also a middleman between the ingenious Holmes and the reader.

== Miscellaneous ==

- Dr. Joseph Bell, one of Doyle’s university professors, was the inspiration for the character of Sherlock Holmes because he taught Doyle the importance of observation.

- Despite his scientific and rational upbringing Doyle started attending séances around 1880 and believed in fairies until the end of his life.

- American magician Harry Houdini tried to convince Doyle to give up on spiritualism which eventually ended their friendship.

- Doyle played football and cricket on national teams.

- In 1894, Doyle temporarily killed Sherlock Holmes off in the short story ''The Final Problem'' but was virtually forced to revive him after a wave of public indignation.

== Selected Works ==

'''Sherlock Holmes stories:'''

- ''A Study in Scarlet'' (1887, published in ''Mrs. Beeton’s'' magazine)

- ''The Sign of the Four'' (1890)

- ''A Scandal in Bohemia'' (1891, the first Sherlock Holmes short story, published – as well as the following short stories – in ''The Strand'' magazine)

- ''The Hound of the Baskervilles'' (1902, appeared in nine parts in ''The Strand'')

- ''The Valley of Fear'' (1915)

'''Other stories:'''

- ''Micah Clarke'' (1888, historical novel)

- ''The White Company'' (1891, historical novel)

- ''Sir Nigel'' (1906, historical novel)

- ''The Lost World'' (1912, its plot has been adapted in several films such as ''Jurassic Park'', 1993)

== Works Cited ==

“Arthur Conan Doyle.” ''Discovering Sherlock Holmes. A Community Reading Project from Stanford University''. Stanford University. 2006. 15 Jan 2011. <http://sherlockholmes.stanford.edu/biography.html>.

Erlebach, Peter and Reitz, Bernhard and Stein, Thomas Michael. ''Geschichte der englischen Literatur''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.

Strasen, Sven and Wenzel, Peter. "Die Detektivgeschichte im 19. und im frühen 20. Jahrhundert." ''Geschichte der englischen Kurzgeschichte''. Eds. Arno Löffler and Eberhard Späth. Tübingen: Francke, 2005. 84-105.

Yoder, Rodney. “Biography of Arthur Conan Doyle.” ''A Selective Index of Detective Fiction''. n.d. 15 Jan 2011. <http://pbpl.physics.ucla.edu/~yoder/mystery/doyle-bio.html>

Rudyard Kipling

2010-11-05T02:17:30Z

Julia K: Created page with 'was born December 30, 1865, in Bombay, India, and died January 18, 1936, in London. Kipling was an Anglo-Indian writer who is famous for his works about life in India under Br…'

was born December 30, 1865, in Bombay, India, and died January 18, 1936, in London.

Kipling was an Anglo-Indian writer who is famous for his works about life in India under British Rule. He also is the author of ''The Jungle Book''.

== Life ==

Kipling was the son of John Lockwood Kipling, principal of the Jeejeebyhoy Art School in Bombay, and of Alice Macdonald Kipling. Both his parents were originally from Staffordshire, England. In 1871 Kipling and his family returned to England but only six months later his parents went back to India, leaving the six year-old son with foster parents in Southsea where he was subjected to physical mistreatment for five years.

Between 1878 and 1882 Kipling was a student at the United Services College in Devon. When he had graduated from there in 1882, he returned to India where he worked as a journalist and editor for seven years. During that time he began to write professionally which turned out a great success for him right from the start.

In 1891 he visited South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and India on a world trip, followed by his marriage with the American Caroline Balestier. After having lived in Vermont, USA, Kipling returned to England – alone – in 1899, the same year that he would have to face his daughter Josephine’s death, followed by his son John’s death in 1915 during World War I. From 1902 until his death in 1936 he lived in Sussex but despite his bad health he stayed an enthusiastic traveller.

== Work ==

Rudyard Kipling is one of the major representatives of the ''Fictions of Empire'' genre, along with [[Joseph Conrad]] and E.M. Forster. The ''Fictions of Empire'' novel that came about in the late 19th century is a derivative of the rather non-political adventure novel from the mid-19th-century (a famous, yet late example of which is [[R. L. Stevenson]]’s ''Treasure Island'', 1881).

''Fictions of Empire'' are literary reflections of the British policy of expansion and hegemony that concentrated on spreading “Englishness” and obtaining raw materials from the colonies. The novels tend to present expansionism in a downplaying way and pretend to be interested in the exotic aspect of colonialism instead. The rightfulness and superiority of the British Rule as such are never questioned in these novels.

The two most important authors of ''Empire Fictions'', Kipling and Conrad, present the British striving for power differently in their works. In contrast to Kipling, Joseph Conrad acknowledges that the manifestations of colonialism (not only the English) are exploitation and oppression, while Kipling recognises the superior’s obligation to lead the colonies. However, both authors hold the opinion that the English (and only the English) colonialism could essentially bring forth good.

On the other hand Kipling is far from romanticising the foreign countries he writes about and the harsh living conditions they hold for both the natives and the white invaders, thus creating a disillusioned picture of the British Empire. It is especially Kipling’s early works that deal with India and the Anglo-Indian society there, and which depict the exotic country as well as the power struggles within.

Kipling’s works show profoundly ambiguous feelings towards the Indian/Eastern culture which is presented as utterly fascinating but at the same time there also lurks the fear of losing one’s Western identity by immersing oneself too deeply in the foreign culture. This ambiguity mirrors an English colonial ideology that promoted learning about foreign cultures to secure British Rule in the colonies. The racial divide that is advocated in the short story ''Beyond the Pale'' (1888), for example, can be seen in that same context.

His inability to embrace the changing ''Zeitgeist'' during the 20th century and his adherence to Imperialist values are clearly traceable in his later works that never gained the fame of his earlier works.

== Miscellaneous ==

- Kipling's nickname was ''Bard of the Empire'', awarded for his poem ''The White Man’s Burden'' (1899).

- He was the first English writer to be awarded the ''Nobel Prize for Literature'' (1907).

- His uncles by marriage were the painters Sir Edward Byrne-Jones and Sir Edward Poynter, as was Member of Parliament Alfred Baldwin.

- He was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]], next to [[T. S. Eliot]].

== Selected Works ==

''Departmental Ditties'' (1886, collection of poems)

''Plain Tales from the Hills'' (1888, collection of short stories, contains ''Beyond the Pale'')

''The Jungle Book'' (1894, collection of short stories)

''The Second Jungle Book'' (1895, collection of short stories)

''Captains Courageous'' (1897, novel)

''The White Man’s Burden'' (1899, poem)

''Kim'' (1901, novel)

''Puck of Pook’s Hill'' (1906, collection of short stories)

''Life’s Handicap'' (1915, collection of short stories)

== Works Cited ==

Cody, David. “Kipling: a Brief Biography.” ''The Victorian Web. Literature, History and Culture in the Age of Victoria.'' 1988. 4 Nov 2010. <http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/kipling/rkbio2.html>.

Erlebach, Peter, and Reitz, Bernhard, and Stein, Thomas Michael. ''Geschichte der englischen Literatur.'' Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.

Petzold, Dieter. “Die koloniale Welt in den Kurzgeschichten Kiplings und Conrads.“ ''Geschichte der englischen Kurzgeschichte.'' Eds. Arno Löffler and Eberhard Späth. Tübingen: Francke, 2005. 129-149.

Tristram Shandy

2009-12-23T01:52:08Z

Julia K: Created page with 'is a novel by Laurence Sterne. ---- == Facts and Literary Techniques == ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'' or alternatively ''Tristram Shandy'' is …'

is a novel by [[Laurence Sterne]].

----

== Facts and Literary Techniques ==

''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'' or alternatively ''Tristram Shandy'' is the title of Laurence Sterne's nine volume novel published between 1759 and 1766. The novel was published in steps of two volumes at a time (volume nine was published separately). The book was an instant hit and made its author famous. It was praised for its entertaining qualities because next to its comic style it contains references and allusions to traditional novels. Literary criticism the book had to face in the eighteenth century focused on the novel’s bawdiness and the open discussion of sexual topics. The intellectual [[Samuel Johnson]] stated with regard to ''Tristram Shandy'': "Nothing odd will do long." (''The Guardian'')

Today the novel is regarded as one of the first pieces of modernist literature and it is especially appreciated for its innovative narrative techniques. For example, ''Tristram Shandy''’s structure is different from contemporary novels because it is not orderly or linear like e.g. [[Henry Fielding]]’s ''[[Tom Jones]]''. But what is even more important is that it is seen as the prototype of the stream of consciousness technique later applied by Virginia Woolf (in ''Mrs. Dalloway'') and James Joyce (in ''Ulysses'').

By presenting Tristram as the novel’s author there is a more intimate relationship than usual between “author” and reader. This is due to the effect of the stream of consciousness technique which suggests to the reader that they are listening to a real person and not a fictional one. This impression is only disturbed when the reader comes across statements the “author” makes that they would question. Thus the reader becomes active and participates in the goings on in the novel which was a novelty in the author/reader relationship.
It is often assumed that Sterne can be recognised in his protagonist due to parallel developments in Sterne’s life and in the novel. Also, Sterne’s writing process was overshadowed by the deaths of his mother and uncle and his wife’s suicide threats which supposedly softened the satirical tone of the novel.

Another unusual technique that Sterne employs is that by combining several stories the plot becomes somewhat subordinated. The plot is also very often neglected for the sake of bringing forth trivial details that become the focus of attention instead. Furthermore, there are other elements like essays, sermons and legal documents that are used and which are extraordinary in a novel.

However, a typical ploy used in literary series can be found, too: Sterne uses cliff-hangers towards the end of each volume to maintain the reader's interest and a certain level of suspense.

== Content ==

The book pretends to be the autobiography of one Tristram Shandy and it tells about the time between 1680 and 1766 in a non-chronological way. This non-chronological nature is alluded to in the sequences about persons and events that take place before the protagonist’s birth but which he nevertheless describes.

There are two storylines in the novel. The first, covering volumes one to six, centres on Tristram Shandy’s conception, birth, christening and circumcision, which are all described as a series of accidents, e.g. when he is given the wrong name – which is turned into a grave matter because his father believes that a person’s name influences their character.

The second storyline in volumes seven to nine focuses on Tristram’s Uncle Toby whose experiences is already alluded to in the previous volumes. Serving in the army, Toby is wounded in the groin. While recovering he moves to the country and decides to build a small scale replica of the battle in which he was wounded. He develops an obsession for model making and history and he is only slowed down by the Peace of Utrecht (1713) - which ended the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] – that sets his mind at rest and gives him time for other things i.e. he gets interested in the Widow Wadman and starts an affair with her.

== Full Text ==

http://books.google.com/books?id=QKoOBXQZAMoC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false

== Works Cited ==

Keep, Christopher, and McLaughlin, Tim and Parmar, Robin. “Tristram Shandy.” ''The Electronic Labyrinth''. 2000. 22 Dec 2009 <http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0259.html>.

"Laurence Sterne." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 Dec. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/565796/Laurence-Sterne>.

“Laurence Sterne. Biography.” ''The Guardian'' (UK). 22 Jul 2008. 22 Dec 2009 <http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/jun/11/laurencesterne>.

“Tristram Shandy.” ''SparkNotes LCC''. 2009. 22 Dec 2009 <http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/tristram/>.

Edmund Burke

2009-12-16T02:08:32Z

Julia K:

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a British-Irish philosopher, parliamentarian and political writer.

[[File:Burke_1.jpg]]

== Life ==

Edmund Burke was born on 12 January 1729 on Arran Quay, Dublin, as the son of a Protestant lawyer at the Irish Court, Richard Burke, and his Catholic wife Mary Nagle. Edmund and his two brothers were raised in the established Church of Ireland; his only sister Juliana, however, was brought up in the Catholic tradition, although she, too, was baptised in a Protestant church. This religious mixture in his parent’s marriage was to become of great significance in his adult life, shaping his thoughts in particular with regard to the political questions of Catholics and Ireland.

At an early age Burke was sent to his mother’s Catholic relatives in Ballyduff in County Cork where he spent most of his childhood. When he was about eleven years old he came back home and attended a school in Dublin for about a year. Then he and his brothers were sent to a boarding school in Ballitore in County Kildare.

Burke was fifteen when he left Ballitore school to attend Trinity College Dublin. There he and some fellow students founded a literary club (’Academy of Belles Lettres’) and later literary weekly called ’The Reformer’. In February 1748 Burke graduated.

Two years later, conforming to his father’s wish, he began to study law at Middle Temple in London. Given his preference for writing, he abandoned his juridicial studies in 1755. One year later Burke published his first book ''A Vindication of Natural Society''.

In 1757 he married Jane Mary Nugent, the daughter of an Irish Catholic doctor, with whom he was to have two sons, Richard and Christopher (who died as a chlid).

From 1759 to 1764 Burke worked as private secretary to William Hamilton, the Irish Chief Secretary, in Ireland. Back in London, he became Rockingham’s private secretary in 1765 and was elected to the [[House of Commons]], which determined his career in politics. (Rockingham was the leading figure of a group of former [[Whigs]] whose party, little earlier, had been broken by King [[George III]].) Bringing in his talents as a writer it was Burke who elaborated the political vision of his party the Rockingham Whigs (“Old Whigs“). He gave many speeches at parliament and became a famous and influential figure although he never held any office for a long time.
Later, after the party had split, he publically broke with both sections, Charles James Fox and the Whigs, and continued writing on politics independently.

FInally, Burke retired in 1794 and spent his last days away from political action, although he never stopped writing.

He died on 9 July 1797 at the age of 68 in Beaconsfield, England.

== Political Work and Thought ==

Throughout the years, as a member of parliament and as a political writer, Burke was concerned with a great variety of issues among which were Britain’s rule in Ireland, North America and India. However, his critique of the French Revolution was to remain connected to his name. Although Burke produced a vast amount of writings, he did not impart a school of political thought that outlasted him.

----

Burke entered Parliament as a representative of the parish Wendover in Buckinghamshire in 1765 and for Bristol in 1774. When he was MP for Bristol Burke expressed the opinion that a member of Parliament is the representative but not the mouthpiece of his electors i.e. the representative has to make his own decision, with the general good of the nation in mind – and maybe even against his electors opinion.

He also took part in the discussion about George III’s attempt to strengthen the crown’s power over the executive which had been lost under his predecessors. Burke opposed the king’s position in his 1770 pamphlet ''Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents'', stating that George’s demand was against the spirit of the constitution.

He was very interested in the controversy about the American colonies and he was a committed orator in the discussions about the American war going on in the 1770s. In his speeches he promoted liberties for the colonies (like abolishing the tea tax) and thus opposed Lord North (''see'' [[Frederick North]]) who was in power at that time.

Burke always tried to support the interests of his home country Ireland which was under English supervision and which held only an Anglo-Protestant minority and a Catholic majority of people. Promoting Irish interests and suggesting the relaxation of economic and penal regulations as well as legislative independence fuelled suspicions of Burke being a closet Catholic. This led to problems with his supporters in Bristol whom he was to represent in parliament and finally resulted in Burke’s resignation in 1780.

In the 1780s Burke turned to the conflict in India where the administration in the form of the [[British East India Company]] had increased their commercial activities and their power so much that an inquiry was made by a committee of the English government of which Burke became a member. When his [[East India Bill]] was defeated in 1783 Burke instigated the impeachment of Bengal’s former governor Warren Hastings in 1787, an act which is nowadays often seen as an error of judgment on Burke’s part because Hastings was cleared later.

Burke also condemned the [[French Revolution]] (1789) as a result of the dangers of democracy and a threat to tradition and values that society had painfully acquired throughout the years, thus contrasting it with the English government as a role model. Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France were greeted with indignation because the reactions in England concerning the French Revolution were generally very positive and the following parliamentary debates about it ended Burke’s friendship with Charles James Fox in 1791.

== Philosophy ==

Burke’s way of thinking consists of the aspects of religion, politics and philosophical ideas. Shaped by his upbringing in an impoverished Ireland, Burke believed that everything man does is geared towards improvement which man can achieve through science and the arts as well as through moral behaviour and economic development. Since the power to reach improvement lies within the hands of the educated, the rich and the powerful, they hold the responsibility to bring improvement to the common people in church, state and education.

Burke also believed that man’s spiritual and moral life is connected to the ways of nature and the universe and that the self-restraint and self-criticism of those is mirrored in man’s life. Nature also brings about progress because God shows himself in nature and inspires man to transfer the wisdom found in nature to society. This implies that progress/improvement is accumulated over time and thus that society is the result of traditions. Social change is bound to happen because of this progressive structure but it has to happen gradually and not radically like in the French Revolution which – according to Burke – destroyed the achievements of society. Another aspect he despised about the Revolution was that it took place to achieve certain aims (equality, liberty) but Burke believed that progress as such should be encouraged without pursuing any special ends because the existing order and nature would lead to an ideal state in the end.

His works are not based on one particular theory but rather on connecting his thoughts with specific topics. The only factor pervading all of Burke’s ideas is reason, mostly mixed with philosophical and religious influences.

== Some Works ==

A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)

A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)

An Account of the European Settlements (1757, co-author)

An Abridgement of English History (c.1757-62)

Annual Register (1758-1765, principal ‘conductor’)

American Taxation (1774)

Conciliation with America (1775)

Fox's East India Bill (1783)

Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770)

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791)

Letters on a Regicide Peace (1795-7)

A Letter to a Noble Lord (1796)

A Letter to William Elliot (1795)

== Sources ==

Ayling, Stanley: ''Edmund Burke. His Life and Opinions.'' London: John Murray, 1988.

Harris, Ian, <nowiki>"Edmund Burke"</nowiki>. ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Stanford University. 13 Dec. 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/burke/>.

Hill, B.W. (ed.): Edmund Burke. On Government, Politics and Society. Sussex: The Harvester Press, 1975. 7-64.

“Edmund Burke.” ''A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature''. Ed. John William Cousin. n.p. 1910. 28 Nov 2009 <http://www.gutenberg.org/files/13240/13240-h/13240-h.htm>.

"Edmund Burke." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 Nov. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/85362/Edmund-Burke>.

[[Category:Expansion]]

John Gay

2009-11-04T16:49:17Z

Julia K:

born 30 June 1685, Barnstaple, Devon, died 4 December 1732, London.
John Gay was an English poet and dramatist.

----

'''Life'''

John Gay was from an old but impoverished family and he was orphaned at the age of ten, so his uncle – a minister – became his guardian. He graduated from the grammar school in Barnstaple before he started his education at a silk mercer’s in London but he soon abandoned this occupation. Instead, he became a secretary to the Duchess of Monmouth in 1712 as well as to Lord Clarendon later on. This helped him establish connections with London’s high society.

He was good friends with [[Alexander Pope]], [[Jonathan Swift]] and John Arbuthnot - who were all members of the [[Scriblerus Club]] as was Gay himself - and he also was a fellow student of composer [[George Frideric Handel]]. There was a lot of mutual influence between them; for instance, Pope is said to have influenced Gay’s poetic style while Gay wrote the libretto for Handel’s pastoral opera ''Acis and Galatea'' (1718). Gay’s plays often included musical parts written by himself, too.

During the 1710s he wrote and produced several plays, fables, operas and poems of varying success but nevertheless he still had numerous patrons. Among them the Duke and the Duchess of Queensberry, who supported Gay until his death and with whom he lived for his last two years, are especially noteworthy.

Although he had become secretary to the British ambassador of the court of Hanover, Gay’s social aspirations were put to an end when Queen [[Anne I]] died in 1714, the following era (of [[George I]]) continuing the trend of a decline in the monarch’s power and an increase in the ministers’ influence instead.

'''Works'''

In 1713, his first major poem, ''Rural Sports'', dealing with the topics of hunting and fishing and the countryside, was published. As a rather extensive work, it was published in two short books.

His most prominent work, however, is ''The Beggar’s Opera'' (1728) which was designed to “mirror the moral degradation of society and […] to caricature the prime minister Sir [[Robert Walpole]] and his Whig administration” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2009). The opera was quite a success and ran for sixty-two nights, though not consecutively. ''The Beggar’s Opera'' is considered the first successful ballad opera which paved the way for other ballad operas and operettas.

Although Gay made some profit from his literary and theatrical works, he was not a rich man and in consequence he was still dependent on his patrons to some extent; not least because he lost quite an amount through his investments in South Sea stock.

'''Death'''

John Gay never married and did not leave any children when he died. Gay was buried in the Poet’s Corner in Westminster Abbey next to [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. His epitaph was written by Pope, followed by a quote from the ''Beggar’s Opera'' which reads, “Life is a Jest, and all Things show it: I thought so once and now I know it”.

== Selected Works ==

- ''Rural Sports'', a poem (1713)

- ''The Shepherd’s Week'', a series of six pastorals (1714)

- ''Three Hours after Marriage'', a comedy and a collaborative work with Alexander Pope and John Arbuthnot (1717)

- ''Fifty-one Fables in Verse'', a collection of beast fables (1727)

- ''The Beggar’s Opera'' (1728)

- ''Polly'', the sequel to the ''Beggar’s Opera'' the performance of which was forbidden by the [[Lord Chamberlain]], supposedly at Walpole’s behest (1729)

== Sources ==

Bareket, Donna, and Eisendraht, Anne, and Selig, Deborah. “Biography of John Gay.” ''The Beggar’s Opera''. 2002. University of Michigan. 3 November 2009 http://www.umich.edu/~ece/student_projects/beggars_opera>.

"John Gay." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 November 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/227376/John-Gay>.

"John Gay." ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 11th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1910. 541. 3 November 2009 <http://www.luminarium.org/eightlit/gay/gaybio.htm>.

Henry Pelham

2009-11-02T16:27:34Z

Julia K:

born 25 September 1694 in Laughton, Sussex, died 6 March 1754 in London

He was a British Prime Minister.

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He was the son of Thomas, 1st Lord of Pelham and went to Westminster School and later to Oxford. He was married to Lady Catherine Manners and together they had eight children.

In 1717, Pelham, who was a Whig supporter, became Member of Parliament for Seaford, Sussex, and for the county of Sussex from 1722 until 1754 respectively. His political success was greatly influenced by his older brother Thomas Pelham-Holles, [[Duke of Newcastle]]. The two of them are sometimes referred to as “the Pelhams”.

Henry Pelham held several offices in parliament, most notably among them his becoming First Lord of the Treasury i.e. prime minister in August 1743, an office he had refused in 1742 out of friendship for the resigned [[Robert Walpole]]. He then became Chancellor of the Exchequer in December 1743.
Together with his brother, who was a member of the House of Lords, Pelham had a lot of power during the reign of [[George II]].

In February 1746, Pelham’s term of office was interrupted for three days by George II who tried to make the [[Earl of Granville]] prime minister. In return, Pelham then called for a mass resignation of ministers. Granville did not get support from parliament and therefore was unable to form a new ministry. Hence Pelham, who did have the parliament's support, was reinstated.

Pelham was generally known for his “ability to unite different political factions” (Number10.gov.uk). His domestic politics aimed at social and financial reforms.
For instance, he restructured the National Debt which led to a stable period of government. In contrast, his attempt at strengthening the rights of Jews was futile.

The most important political conflicts Pelham was involved in were the [[Jacobite Rising]] in 1745, the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] (1748) and the subsequent peace of Aix-la Chapelle (1748). The last two of these in effect meant peace with France - which thereby recognised the House of Hanover in Britain and repudiated the pretender [[Charles Edward Stuart]] - and also stopped the “financial drain on the country” (Encyclopaedia Britannica). After the war Pelham also reduced the military forces and cut the land tax. Another result of the peace was that trade connections with Spain were initiated as well.

Pelham died in office, supposedly of his bad physical condition (too much food, too little exercise) and a series of illnesses he had had throughout his life. His brother, the Duke of Newcastle, succeeded Henry Pelham as prime minister in 1754.

== Miscellaneous ==

Pelham established the Gregorian calendar in 1752 so that the year started on January 1 instead of March 25.

== Sources ==

Holmes, Geoffrey, and Szechi, Daniel. ''The Age of Oligarchy. Pre-Industrial Britain. 1722-1783''. London: Longman, 1993.

"Henry Pelham." ''Encyclopædia Britannica.'' 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02 Nov. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449178/Henry-Pelham>.

“Henry Pelham.” ''Number10.gov.uk. The Official Site of the Prime Minister’s Office. Prime Ministers in History''. n.d. 2 Nov 2009 <http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/prime-ministers-in-history/henry-pelham>.

“Biography of Henry Pelham.” ''Manuscripts and Special Collections.'' n.d. The University of Nottingham. 2 Nov 2009 <http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/newcastle/biographies/biographyofhenrypelham%28c1695-1754;primeminister%29.aspx>.

Henry Pelham

2009-11-02T16:24:54Z

Julia K: Created page with 'born 25 September 1694 in Laughton, Sussex, died 6 March 1754 in London He was a British Prime Minister. ---- He was the son of Thomas, 1st Lord of Pelham and went to Westmi…'

born 25 September 1694 in Laughton, Sussex, died 6 March 1754 in London

He was a British Prime Minister.

----

He was the son of Thomas, 1st Lord of Pelham and went to Westminster School and later to Oxford. He was married to Lady Catherine Manners and together they had eight children.

In 1717, Pelham, who was a Whig supporter, became Member of Parliament for Seaford, Sussex, and for the county of Sussex from 1722 until 1754 respectively. His political success was greatly influenced by his older brother Thomas Pelham-Holles, [[Duke of Newcastle]]. The two of them are sometimes referred to as “the Pelhams”.

Henry Pelham held several offices in parliament, most notably among them his becoming First Lord of the Treasury i.e. prime minister in August 1743, an office he had refused in 1742 out of friendship for the resigned [[Robert Walpole]]. He then became Chancellor of the Exchequer in December 1743.
Together with his brother, who was a member of the House of Lords, Pelham had a lot of power during the reign of [[George II]].

In February 1746, Pelham’s term of office was interrupted for three days by George II who tried to make the [[Earl of Granville]] prime minister. In return, Pelham then called for a mass resignation of ministers. Granville did not get support from parliament and therefore was unable to form a new ministry. Hence Pelham, who did have the parliament's support, was reinstated.

Pelham was generally known for his “ability to unite different political factions” (Number10.gov.uk). His domestic politics aimed at social and financial reforms.
For instance, he restructured the National Debt which led to a stable period of government. In contrast, his attempt at strengthening the rights of Jews was futile.

The most important political conflicts Pelham was involved in were the [[Jacobite Rising]] in 1745, the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] (1748) and the subsequent peace of Aix-la Chapelle (1748). The last two of these in effect meant peace with France - which thereby recognised the House of Hanover in Britain and repudiated the pretender [[Charles Edward Stuart]] - and also stopped the “financial drain on the country” (Encyclopaedia Britannica). After the war Pelham also reduced the military forces and cut the land tax. Another result of the peace was that trade connections with Spain were initiated as well.

Pelham supposedly died of his bad physical condition (too much food, too little exercise) and a series of illnesses throughout his life. His brother, the Duke of Newcastle, succeeded Henry Pelham as prime minister in 1754.

== Miscellaneous ==

Pelham established the Gregorian calendar in 1752 so that the year started on January 1 instead of March 25.

== Sources ==

Holmes, Geoffrey, and Szechi, Daniel. ''The Age of Oligarchy. Pre-Industrial Britain. 1722-1783''. London: Longman, 1993.

"Henry Pelham." ''Encyclopædia Britannica.'' 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02 Nov. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/449178/Henry-Pelham>.

“Henry Pelham.” ''Number10.gov.uk. The Official Site of the Prime Minister’s Office. Prime Ministers in History''. n.d. 2 Nov 2009 <http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/prime-ministers-in-history/henry-pelham>.

“Biography of Henry Pelham.” ''Manuscripts and Special Collections.'' n.d. The University of Nottingham. 2 Nov 2009 <http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/newcastle/biographies/biographyofhenrypelham%28c1695-1754;primeminister%29.aspx>.

War of the Grand Alliance

2009-07-21T16:56:54Z

Julia K:

The W''ar of the Grand Alliance'' is the war fought between England and several other European countries against France from 1689 till 1697. It is sometimes called the ''Nine Years War''.

In 1678 the ''Treaty of Alliance'' was established between England and the Netherlands (then called the United Provinces) to secure peace in each country and to support each other in defending their territories against invaders, namely France.

When in 1689 Anglo-Dutch [[William III]] and [[Mary II]] became joint rulers by accepting the [[Bill of Rights]], the Catholic king of France, [[Louis XIV]], did not recognise them as legal monarchs. This as well as Louis’s overall belligerent behaviour eventually led to the war. The United Provinces declared war on France in February, England in May 1689. That same month, the ''Grand Alliance'' was formed between England, the United Provinces, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, Spain, Savoy (region in France/Italy) and several German states in order to fight France.

Simultaneously, England was busy fighting Jacobite forces in Ireland. William III fought there in 1690 before going to the Netherlands in 1691 to command the English troops.
The following years, both sides i.e. France and its enemies had their victories and their losses. The war comprised mainly of naval battles and sieges on the Continent. Because the fortunes of war were constantly changing, the question of which strategies to take caused heated discussions in the English Parliament and among the English people; not least because the war was expensive in the long run.

In 1696 Savoy made peace with Louis XIV followed by Leopold I who conceded defeat in Italy.

In May 1697, there was a peace congress at Ryswick (Netherlands). The effects of that conference were that Louis XIV recognised William as the King of England and that in September France, the United Provinces, England and Spain signed the ''Treaty of Ryswick'' which officially ended the War of the Grand Alliance.

== Source ==

Holmes, Geoffrey. ''The Making of a Great Power. Late Stuart and Early Georgian Britain. 1660-1722.'' London: Longman, 1993.

John Vanbrugh

2009-07-21T16:54:49Z

Julia K: Created page with 'Baptised January 24, 1664, died March 26, 1726. John Vanbrugh was a famous dramatist and English Baroque architect, most known for his comedies ''The Relapse'' (1696) and ''The…'

Baptised January 24, 1664, died March 26, 1726.

John Vanbrugh was a famous dramatist and English Baroque architect, most known for his comedies ''The Relapse'' (1696) and ''The Provok’d Wife'' (1697) and for Blenheim Palace (Oxfordshire) and Castle Howard (Yorkshire) which he designed.

He was born as the son of a businessman in Chester and educated there. In 1686 he joined the army and in 1690he was arrested in Calais, France, for possibly being an English spy. He was released in 1692. In prison, he wrote his first piece of drama.

His first comedies ''The Relapse'' and ''The Provok’d Wife'' were major successes. Jeremy Collier’s ''Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage'' (1698) especially aimed at Vanbrugh’s very explicit works.

In 1702 Vanbrugh started working as an architect by designing Castle Howard (Yorkshire). Christopher Wren’s clerk Nicholas Hawksmoor became Vanbrugh’s assistant i.e. partner. Their buildings are marked by a “rhythmic effect of diversified masses” (Encyclopaedia Britannica). Vanbrugh usually worked on the general plans of their constructions and Hawksmoor was concerned with the details.

In 1705 Vanbrugh established the Queen’s Theatre in London and afterwards became its manager and principal author. The theatrical means of surprise and illusion that he learned there can supposedly be traced in his architecture, too. From 1705 till 1716 he and Hawksmoor built their most famous construction: Blenheim Palace.

In 1714 [[George]] I knighted him and made him comptroller again (i.e. he was in charge of arranging royal ceremonial affairs), an office that he had already held in 1702 under Queen [[Anne I]].

In the 17th century artists were supposed to conform to conventional morals and to have social aspirations. While many artists were social outsiders, John Vanbrugh enjoyed aristocratic company very much.

He was a member of the exclusive Kit Cat club that from 1703 onward became the place to be for [[Whigs]]. Vanbrugh was a Whig in his early days himself and therefore, Whig aristocrats also were his patrons.

== Sources ==

"Sir John Vanbrugh." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 Jul. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/622815/Sir-John-Vanbrugh>.

Hook, Judith. ''The Baroque Age in England''. London: Thames and Hudson, 1976.

War of the Grand Alliance

2009-07-20T20:25:45Z

Julia K: Created page with 'The W''ar of the Grand Alliance'' is the war fought between England and several other European countries against France from 1689 till 1697. It is sometimes called the ''Nine Yea…'

Declaration of Indulgence

2009-07-20T18:30:03Z

Julia K:

There were two Declarations of Indulgence under Charles II in 1662 and 1672, and three under James II: one in Scotland and one in England in 1687 and the Second Declaration of Indulgence in 1688. The declarations were concerned with expanding the religious freedom of dissenters i.e. Protestants and Catholics.

== Charles II’s (so-called) first Declaration of Indulgence ==

26 December 1662

This “propose[d] relief to E. dissenters by royal dispensation” (Holmes 4). But already in February 1663 this proposition was rejected by the [[House of Commons]].

== Charles II’s Declaration of Indulgence ==

15 March 1672

The preamble said that religious restrictions were loosened to prevent secret meetings of dissenters and as a result conspiracies or riots.
The declaration contained four articles that stated that first, the Church of England maintained its privileges e.g. charge fees (“tithes”) from Anglicans and Nonconformists as well. Second, penal laws against Nonconformists and recusants (opponents of the Anglican Church) were to be suspended. Third, meetings of Nonconformists had to be licensed and were to be held by licensed ministers. Those meetings had to bee open to the public. Fourth, Catholics could only hold their services in private.

Parliament was suspicious of granting Catholics liberties and rejected Charles’s declaration in February 1673 on the grounds that penal statutes in ecclesiastical matters could only be suspended by an act of Parliament. Later that same year the Test Act was established.

== James II’s First Declaration of Indulgence ==

4 April 1687

This aims at giving pragmatic reasons for religious toleration, suggesting that religious persecution damaged the interest of the government (spoiling trade, discouraging strangers from immigrating). All penal laws in ecclesiastical matters were to be suspended and worship became legal in private as well as in public places. The [[Oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy]] that had been made obligatory by the [[Test Acts]] of 1673 and 1678 were abolished.

== James II’s Second Declaration of Indulgence ==

27 April 1688

This was a reissue of James’s First Declaration and the obligation to read it out in all Anglican churches. There was protest among the bishops and “the immortal Seven [bishops]” (Holmes 184) issued a petition against this pro-Catholic treatise which was later regarded as one of the reasons of the [[Glorious Revolution]] in 1688.

== Source ==

Holmes, Geoffrey. ''The Making of a Great Power. Late Stuart and Early Georgian Britain. 1660-1722.'' London: Longman, 1993.

Declaration of Indulgence

2009-07-20T18:28:43Z

Julia K: Created page with 'There were two Declarations of Indulgence under Charles II in 1662 and 1672, and three under James II: one in Scotland and one in England in 1687 and the Second Declaration of In…'

There were two Declarations of Indulgence under Charles II in 1662 and 1672, and three under James II: one in Scotland and one in England in 1687 and the Second Declaration of Indulgence in 1688. The declarations were concerned with expanding the religious freedom of dissenters i.e. Protestants and Catholics.

== Charles II’s (so-called) first Declaration of Indulgence ==

26 December 1662
This “propose[d] relief to E. dissenters by royal dispensation” (Holmes 4). But already in February 1663 this proposition was rejected by the [[House of Commons]].

== Charles II’s Declaration of Indulgence ==

15 March 1672
The preamble said that religious restrictions were loosened to prevent secret meetings of dissenters and as a result conspiracies or riots.
The declaration contained four articles that stated that first, the Church of England maintained its privileges e.g. charge fees (“tithes”) from Anglicans and Nonconformists as well. Second, penal laws against Nonconformists and recusants (opponents of the Anglican Church) were to be suspended. Third, meetings of Nonconformists had to be licensed and were to be held by licensed ministers. Those meetings had to bee open to the public. Fourth, Catholics could only hold their services in private.

Parliament was suspicious of granting Catholics liberties and rejected Charles’s declaration in February 1673 on the grounds that penal statutes in ecclesiastical matters could only be suspended by an act of Parliament. Later that same year the Test Act was established.

== James II’s First Declaration of Indulgence ==

4 April 1687
This aims at giving pragmatic reasons for religious toleration, suggesting that religious persecution damaged the interest of the government (spoiling trade, discouraging strangers from immigrating). All penal laws in ecclesiastical matters were to be suspended and worship became legal in private as well as in public places. The [[Oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy]] that had been made obligatory by the [[Test Acts]] of 1673 and 1678 were abolished.

== James II’s Second Declaration of Indulgence ==

27 April 1688
This was a reissue of James’s First Declaration and the obligation to read it out in all Anglican churches. There was protest among the bishops and “the immortal Seven [bishops]” (Holmes 184) issued a petition against this pro-Catholic treatise which was later regarded as one of the reasons of the [[Glorious Revolution]] in 1688.

== Source ==

Holmes, Geoffrey. ''The Making of a Great Power. Late Stuart and Early Georgian Britain. 1660-1722.'' London: Longman, 1993.