British Culture - User contributions [en]

Great Chain of Being

2010-07-10T11:56:29Z

Isan:

The hierarchical structure of all matter and living beings. A classical and medieval Christian concept, the Great Chain of Being was believed to be ordained by God.

The concept of the Great Chain of Being or “scala naturae” gives every existing thing a place in the hierarchical structure made by God. It was used not only in the classical Christian period, but also in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
The Great Chain of Being differentiates and orders the things according to their propotion of “spirit” and “matter”. Creatures with more “spirit” have a higher position, than things containing more “matter”.
The Great Chain of Being devides all beings in groups, which are also structured hierarchically within themselves:

'''God''', as omnipotent and omnipresent creator of all other beings, is at the top of the ladder and consists only of “spirit”.

'''Angels''' consist also only of “spirit” and are beyond the limitations of time. They possess language, emotions and feelings, but unlike God lack the omnipotence and omnipresence.
The group of angels had several subdivisions during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, creating three, seven, nine or even ten different groups of angels, but most common was the devision made by Ps. Dionysius (~500 A.D) and St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) with nine groups of angels and their hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones, Dominations, Principalities, Powers, Virtues, Archangels, Angels.

'''Man''' combine “spirit” and “matter”, because they are spiritual beings with passion and reason, but also have a body and are bounded to the limitations of time. They have a special role in the chain of being, because of this duality between “spirit” and “matter”. Especially in the Renaissance the human being was seen as a “microcosm” reflecting the “macrocosm”, namely the structure of the world and its constituent parts: the four elements. The “humours” of the body “black bile”(earth), “yellow bile”(fire), “plegm” (water) and “blood”(air), resembled the four elements on earth. This shows also the correspondence between the different groups of the chain of being.
In addition to that the concept of the chain of beings was not only used by humans to differentiate from other forms of beings, but also to create an order within themselves. Kings and Queens for example were directly positioned after the group of angels at the top of the groups of man (in other perspectives only adjusted to the Pope or on the same level with him). Other mighty people like Archbishops, Dukes and Bishops succeeded, while common people were seen in lower positions of the group of man. The chain therefore provided a rationale for the authority of the rulers.

'''Animals''' lack the spiritual competence of human but are animated beings with limited intelligence. They are also classified in several subdivisions, according to their living spaces or their skills. For example animals like mussels are at the bottom of the chain, because they can not move on their own, whereas the lion and the elephant are considered as intelligent, powerful animals and therefore on the top of the animal group.

'''Plants''' are living beings, which can grow and reproduce, but cannot move on their own and have no intelligence. Trees build the top of this group, while fungi are at its bottom.

'''Minerals''' are the lowest beings, because they cannot grow and reproduce like plants and have no “spirit” but consist only of “matter”. They are devided into gems, metals and other forms of minerals like marble, sand etc.

Although the Chain of Being devides the different beings into groups, the concept of continuity is of high importance in the ideas of the Middle Ages. This means that there are no huge bounds between the groups for example between animals and plants, because the lowest animals are those, which are already close to the status of plants, according to their abilities to interact and to move etc. Furthermore the concept of correspondence shows the relation of all groups to eachother, showing that everything is part of God’s creation and therefore belongs together and cannot be separated completely, but only ordered.

==Sources:==

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/ren.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_chain_of_being

Lovejoy, Arthur O.: The Great Chain of Being. A Study of the history of an idea, Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1961.

Great Chain of Being

2010-07-10T09:54:50Z

Isan:

The hierarchical structure of all matter and living beings. A classical and medieval Christian concept, the Great Chain of Being was believed to be ordained by God.

((in progress)

Tower of London

2010-05-27T11:56:56Z

Isan:

Also called „Her Majesty’s Royal Palace and Fortress” is positioned on the north bank of the Thames in central London and is the oldest building used by the government.

The constructions of parts of the Tower started after the Norman invasion and the Battle of Hastings in 1066. [[William the Conqueror]] began in the 1070s to build the White Tower and a surrounding wall as a fortress to demonstrate and to represent his power. The White Tower was completed around 1100 and in this time was an extraordinary and impressive building. However the Tower was not intended as a primary royal residence but as a fortress/stronghold.

In the Middle Ages the Tower of London was updated and expanded by the kings. [[Richard the Lionheart]] started the expansions in his reign from 1189 to 1199. After his return from the crusades he also started keeping lions and other exotic animals there. In addition to that, the Tower still served as a powerbase and a refuge in crises. [[Henry III]] expanded the royal accomodations by adding two towers, the Wakefield and the Lanthorn, and started to strengthten the defense of the tower, a work that was continued by his son, [[Edward I]]. In Edward’s reign the Tower became England’s strongest concentric castle. For the first time the Tower was used as a prison and a secure place for official documents and valuables in this period. Especially in the [[War of the Roses]], it was of high importance as a prison and stronghold and also as place for victory celebrations and executions.

Under the [[Tudors]] the Tower more and more became a prison for religious and political opponents. For example [[Anne Boleyn]] and [[Catherine Howard]], two wives of [[Henry VIII]] were imprisoned and later executed there. Furthermore [[Elizabeth I]] was arrested under the reign of [[Mary I]].

In the [[Civil War]] the Tower was taken by the parliamentarians and still used as a prison but after the [[restoration]] of the monarchy in 1660 its function as prison decreased, because the Tower became the headquarters of the Office of Ordnance.

In the 18th century the buildings of the Tower were maintained but no great buildings were added. In the 19th century the Waterloo Baracks were constructed, but also a lot of institutions, like the Royal Mint, the Menagerie and the Office of Ordnance left the Tower and it was re-medievalised and started to become a tourist attraction.

In World War I and World War II again prisoners were held in the Tower and also executions took place; the last one in 1941 was of Joseph Jakobs, a German spy, who was convicted of attempted espionage for the enemy under the Treachery Act of 1940.

Today the Tower is a major tourist attraction in London and a World Heritage Site. Since 1303 the Crown Jewels, which are guarded by the 35 [[Yeomen Warders]] all time, are kept there.

==Sources==
Rowse, Alfred. ''The Tower of London in the history of the Nation'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972.

Minney, Rubeigh James.''Tower of London'', London: Cassell, 1970.

http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/buildinghistory/default.aspx

Tower of London

2010-05-27T11:48:43Z

Isan:

Also called „Her Majesty’s Royal Palace and Fortress” is positioned on the north bank of the Thames in central London and is the oldest building used by the government.

The constructions of parts of the Tower started after the Norman invasion and the Battle of Hastings in 1066. [[William the Conqueror]] began in the 1070s to build the White Tower and a surrounding wall as a fortress to demonstrate and to represent his power. The White Tower was completed around 1100 and in this time was an extraordinary and impressive building. However the Tower was not intended as a primary royal residence but as a fortress/stronghold.

In the Middle Ages the Tower of London was updated and expanded by the kings. [[Richard the Lionheart]] started the expansions in his reign from 1189 to 1199. After his return from the crusades he also started keeping lions and other exotic animals there. In addition to that, the Tower still served as a powerbase and a refuge in crises. [[Henry III]] expanded the royal accomodations by adding two towers, the Wakefield and the Lanthorn, and started to strengthten the defense of the tower, a work that was continued by his son, [[Edward I]]. In Edward’s reign the Tower became England’s strongest concentric castle. For the first time the Tower was used as a prison and a secure place for official documents and valuables in this period. Especially in the [[War of the Roses]], it was of high importance as a prison and stronghold and also as place for victory celebrations and executions.

Under the [[Tudors]] the Tower more and more became a prison for religious and political opponents. For example [[Anne Boleyn]] and [[Catherine Howard]], two wives of [[Henry VIII]] were imprisoned and later executed there. Furthermore [[Elizabeth I]] was arrested under the reign of [[Mary I]].

In the [[Civil War]] the Tower was taken by the parliamentarians and still used as a prison but after the [[restoration]] of the monarchy in 1660 its function as prison decreased, because the Tower became the headquarters of the Office of Ordnance.

In the 18th century the buildings of the Tower were maintained but no great buildings were added. In the 19th century the Waterloo Baracks were constructed, but also a lot of institutions, like the Royal Mint, the Menagerie and the Office of Ordnance left the Tower and it was re-medievalised and started to become a tourist attraction.

In World War I and World War II again prisoners were held in the Tower and also executions took place; the last one was of Joseph Jakobs in 1941 [out of mere curiosity: why was he executed?].

Today the Tower is a major tourist attraction in London and a World Heritage Site. Since 1303 the Crown Jewels, which are guarded by the 35 [[Yeomen Warders]] all time, are kept there.

==Sources==
Rowse, Alfred. ''The Tower of London in the history of the Nation'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972.

Minney, Rubeigh James.''Tower of London'', London: Cassell, 1970.

http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/buildinghistory/default.aspx

Tower of London

2010-05-27T11:45:47Z

Isan:

Also called „Her Majesty’s Royal Palace and Fortress” is positioned on the north bank of the Thames in central London and is the oldest building used by the government.

The constructions of parts of the Tower started after the Norman invasion and the Battle of Hastings in 1066. [[William the Conqueror]] began in the 1070s to build the White Tower and a surrounding wall as a fortress to demonstrate and to represent his power. The White Tower was completed around 1100 and in this time was an extraordinary and impressive building. However the Tower was not intended as a primary royal residence but as a fortress/stronghold.

In the Middle Ages the Tower of London was updated and expanded by the kings. [[Richard the Lionheart]] started the expansions in his reign from 1189 to 1199. After his return from the crusades he also started keeping lions and other exotic animals there. In addition to that, the Tower still served as a powerbase and a refuge in crises. [[Henry III]] expanded the royal accomodations by adding two towers, the Wakefield and the Lanthorn, and started to strengthten the defense of the tower, a work that was continued by his son, [[Edward I]]. In Edward’s reign the Tower became England’s strongest concentric castle. For the first time the Tower was used as a prison and a secure place for official documents and valuables in this period. Especially in the [[War of the Roses]], it was of high importance as a prison and stronghold and also as place for victory celebrations and executions.

Under the [[Tudors]] the Tower more and more became a prison for religious and political opponents. For example [[Anne Boleyn]] and [[Catherine Howard]], two wives of [[Henry VIII]] were imprisoned and later executed there. Furthermore [[Elizabeth I]] was arrested under the reign of [[Mary I]].

In the [[Civil War]] the Tower was taken by the parliamentarians and still used as a prison but after the [[restoration]] of the monarchy in 1660 its function as prison decreased, because the Tower became the headquarters of the Office of Ordnance.

In the 18th century the buildings of the Tower were maintained but no great buildings were added. In the 19th century the Waterloo Baracks were constructed, but also a lot of institutions, like the Royal Mint, the Menagerie and the Office of Ordnance left the Tower and it was re-medievalised and started to become a tourist attraction.

In World War I and World War II again prisoners were held in the Tower and also executions took place; the last one was of Joseph Jakobs in 1941 [out of mere curiosity: why was he executed?].

Today the Tower is a major tourist attraction in London and a World Heritage Site. Since 1303 the Crown Jewels, which are guarded by the 35 [[Yeomen Warders]] all time, are kept there.

==Sources==
Rowse, Alfred. ''The Tower of London in the history of the Nation'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972.

Minney, Rubeigh James.''Tower of London'', [place? publishing house?] 1970.

http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/buildinghistory/default.aspx

Tower of London

2010-05-18T20:36:46Z

Isan: Created page with 'The Tower of London also called „Her Majesty’s Royal Palace and Fortress” is positioned on the north bank of the Thames in central London and is the oldest building used by…'

The Tower of London also called „Her Majesty’s Royal Palace and Fortress” is positioned on the north bank of the Thames in central London and is the oldest building used by the government.

The constructions of parts of the Tower started after the Norman invasion after the Battle of Hastings. [[William the Conqueror]] began in the 1070’s to build the White Tower and a surrounding wall as a fortress to demonstrate and to represent his power. The White Tower was completed around 1100 and in this time was an extraordinary and impressive building. However the Tower was not intended as a primary royal residence but as a fortress- stronghold.

In the Middle Ages the Tower of London was updated and expanded by the kings. [[Richard the Lionheart]] started the expansions in his reign from 1189 to 1199. After his return from the crusades he also started keeping lions and other exotic animals there. In addition to that, the Tower still served as a powerbase and a refuge in crises. [[Henry III.]] expanded the royal accomodations by adding two towers, the Wakefield and the Lanthorn and started to strenghten the defense of the tower, a work that was continued by his son, [[Edward I]]. In Edward’s reign the Tower became England’s strongest concentric castle. For the first time the Tower was used as a prison and a secure place for official documents and valuables in this period. Especially in the [[War of the Roses]], it was of high importance as a prison and stronghold and also as place for victory celebrations and executions.

Under the Tudors the Tower more and more became a prison for religious and political opponents. For example [[Anne Boleyn]] and [[Catherine Howard]], two wifes of [[Henry VIII]]. were imprisoned and later executed there. Furthermore [[Elizabeth I]] was arrested under the reign of [[Mary I]].

In the Civil War the Tower was taken by parliamentarians and still used as a prison but after the [[restoration]] of the monarchy in 1660 its function as prison decreased, because the Tower became the headquarters of the.

In the 18th century the buildings of the tower were maintained but no great buildings were added. In the 19th century the Waterloo Baracks were constructed, but also a lot of institutions, like the Royal Mint, the Menagerie and the Office of Ordnance left the Tower and it was re- medievalised and started to become a tourist attraction.

In World War I and World War II again prisoners were held in the Tower and also executions took place; the last one was of Joseph Jakobs in 1941.

Today the Tower is a major tourist attraction in London and a World Heritage Site. Since 1303 the Crown Jewels, which are guarded by the 35 [[Yeomen Warders]] all time, are kept there.

==Sources==
Rowse, Alfred. ''The Tower of London in the history of the Nation'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972.

Minney, Rubeigh James.''Tower of London'',1970.

http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/buildinghistory/default.aspx

Catherine of Aragon

2010-05-04T08:18:44Z

Isan:

First wife of [[Henry VIII]]. Spanish and [[Catholicism|Catholic]]. Mother of [[Mary I]].

Catherine of Aragon was born on 16 December 1485 as the youngest surviving child of the mighty spanish royal couple Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile and Leon. Trough marriages of her brothers and sisters into the house of Habsburg and to the Portugese royal house, Catherine’s family became very influential in Europe. Next to these relations she was also related to the English royal house, because Catherine of Lancaster was her great- grandmother.

Catherine received a good education including not only domestic skills but also languages, classics, literary studies and religion. Especially religion was highly important for her and she got a strong [[Catholic]] faith.

On 14 November 1501 Catherine was married to the oldest son of [[Henry VII]], Arthur, Prince of Wales, who was the heir to the throne, because of [[primogeniture]]. But only a few month after the marriage he died and Catherine was promised to marry his brother Henry. However, this marriage was delayed until [[Henry VII]] had died and therefore Catherine lived in poverty for several years.

On 11 June 1509 she married [[Henry VIII]], who succeeded his father on the throne, and shortly after was crowned Queen of England and Ireland. In her marriage Catherine gave birth to five children of whom four where still or infants deaths and only one daughter Mary, born 18 February 1516, survived.

From the year 1526 [[Henry VIII]], desperate for a male heir, searched the annulment of the marriage with Catherine to marry his mistress [[Anne Boleyn]]. He claimed that the marriage was a sin and could not be legitimate, because Catherine was married to his brother Arthur before.

Although Catherine struggled against divorce and annulment by stating that the marriage was not consummated and although Pope Clement VII, who was in the hands of Catherine’s nephew the emperor Charles V, denied an annulment, [[Henry VIII]] secretely married [[Anne Boleyn]] in 1533 and his marriage to Catherine was declared illegal by a special court in England.

Catherine was transferred to Kimbolton Castle where she died on 7 January 1536 and was burried in Petersborough Cathedral.

==Sources==

Cannon, John; Hargreaves, Anne. ''The Kings and Queens of Britain''. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

Starkey, David. ''Six Wives. The Queens of Henry VIII''. London: Chatto and Windus, 2003.