British Culture - User contributions [en]

James II

2010-06-04T08:52:14Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England from 1685 to 1688.

James II was the son of King [[Charles I]] and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he was married to Anne Hyde (a Protestant and the daughter of chancellor Clarendon) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife, he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, James Francis Edward. He left England and the English throne during the [[Glorious Revolution]] and was succeeded by his eldest daughter Mary and her husband [[William of Orange]].

James grew up in exile, in France, due to the civil war in England. He made a career in the French army. But in 1655, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore France became an enemy of the English royal family. That is the reason why James and the whole royal family went to the part of the Netherlands which was under Spanish rule. In 1658, James joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought together with the Spanish troops against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of the monarchy.

In religious terms, James II was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother. He was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. The fact that he was a Catholic became a serious problem during his reign because the English people were very suspicious of Catholics after the events of [[Mary I]] and the [[Gunpowder Plot]]. James II strongly supported the English Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the ''Test Acts'', a series of laws which were to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from Court and Parliament. In 1687, James II proclaimed the ''Declaration of Indulgence'', which suspended the ''Test Acts'' and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of Parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic ''Declaration of Indulgence'' (April 1688), which finally led to really serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches, and the Protestant English elite strongly opposed to this. Moreover, the birth of James's son James Francis Edward (his first and only male heir and baptized Catholic) in June 1688 contributed to the fear of the Protestant English elite to be run over by a Catholic dynasty. They sent a petition to [[William of Orange]] (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), and they invited him to come to England and to ascend the English throne. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France, and later he went to Ireland. This is the so-called [[Glorious Revolution]]. In the mainly Catholic Ireland, James made a last attempt to regain the throne. He formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying, and he made no further attempts to regain the English throne. His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Stuttgart. Kohlhammer. 2004.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart.'' Stuttgart. Kröner. 1985.

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands.'' Stuttgart. Reclam. 2007.

James II

2010-06-03T12:19:43Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England from 1685 to 1688.

James II was the son of [[Charles I]] and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he was married to Anne Hyde (a Protestant and the daughter of chancellor Clarendon) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife, he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, James Francis Edward. He left England and the English throne during the [[Glorious Revolution]] and was succeeded by his eldest daughter Mary and her husband [[William of Orange]].

James II grew up in exile, in France, due to the civil war in England. He made a career in the French army. But in 1655, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore France became an enemy of the English royal family. That is the reason why James and the whole royal family went to the part of the Netherlands which was under Spanish rule. In 1658, James joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought together with the Spanish troops against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of the monarchy.

In religious terms, James was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother. He was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. The fact that he was a Catholic became a serious problem during his reign because the English people were very suspicious of Catholics after the events of Mary I and the Gunpowder Plot. James II strongly supported the English Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the ''Test Acts'', which were to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from Court and Parliament. In 1687, James II proclaimed the ''Declaration of Indulgence'', which suspended the ''Test Acts'' and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of Parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic ''Declaration of Indulgence'' (April 1688), which finally led to serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches and the Protestant English elite strongly opposed to this. Moreover, the birth of his son James Francis Edward (his only male heir and baptized Catholic) in June 1688 contributed to the fear of the Protestant English elite to be run over by a Catholic dynasty. They sent a petition to [[William of Orange]] (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), and they invited him to come to England and to ascend the English throne. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France and later he went to Ireland. This is the so-called [[Glorious Revolution]]. In the mainly Catholic Ireland, James formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying, and he made no attempts to regain the English throne. His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Kohlhammer. Stuttgart. 2004.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart.'' Kröner. Stuttgart 1985.

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands.'' Reclam. Stuttgart. 2007.

James II

2010-06-03T12:17:06Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England from 1685 to 1688.

James II was the son of [[Charles I]] and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he was married to Anne Hyde (a Protestant and the daughter of chancellor Clarendon) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife, he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, James Francis Edward. He left England and the English throne during the [[Glorious Revolution]] and was succeeded by his eldest daughter Mary and her husband [[William of Orange]].

James II grew up in exile, in France, due to the civil war in England. He made a career in the French army. But in 1655, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore France became an enemy of the English royal family. That is the reason why James and the whole royal family went to the part of the Netherlands which was under Spanish rule. In 1658, James joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought together with the Spanish troops against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of the monarchy.

In religious terms, James was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother. He was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. The fact that he was a Catholic became a serious problem during his reign because the English people were very suspicious of Catholics after the events of Mary I and the Gunpowder Plot. James II strongly supported the English Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the ''Test Acts'', which was to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from Court and Parliament. In 1687, James II proclaimed the ''Declaration of Indulgence'', which suspended the ''Test Acts'' and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of Parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic ''Declaration of Indulgence'' (April 1688), which finally led to serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches and the Protestant English elite strongly opposed to this. Moreover, the birth of his son James Francis Edward (his only male heir and baptized Catholic) in June 1688 contributed to the fear of the Protestant English elite to be run over by a Catholic dynasty. They sent a petition to [[William of Orange]] (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), and they invited him to come to England and to ascend the English throne. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France and later he went to Ireland. This is the so-called [[Glorious Revolution]]. In the mainly Catholic Ireland, James formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying, and he made no attempts to regain the English throne. His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Kohlhammer. Stuttgart. 2004.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart.'' Kröner. Stuttgart 1985.

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands.'' Reclam. Stuttgart. 2007.

James II

2010-06-03T12:14:40Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England from 1685 to 1688.

James II was the son of [[Charles I]] and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he was married to Anne Hyde (a Protestant and the daughter of chancellor Clarendon) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife, he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, James Francis Edward. He left England and the English throne during the [[Glorious Revolution]] and was succeeded by his eldest daughter Mary and her husband [[William of Orange]].

James II grew up in exile, in France, due to the civil war in England. He made a career in the French army. But in 1655, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore France became an enemy of the English royal family. That is the reason why James and the whole royal family went to the part of the Netherlands which was under Spanish rule. In 1658, James joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought together with the Spanish troops against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of the monarchy.

In religious terms, James was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother. He was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. The fact that he was a Catholic became a serious problem during his reign because the English people were very suspicious of Catholics after the events of Mary I and the Gunpowder Plot. James II strongly supported the English Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the ''Test Acts'', which was to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from Court and Parliament. In 1687, James II proclaimed the ''Declaration of Indulgence'', which suspended the ''Test Acts'' and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of Parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic ''Declaration of Indulgence'' (April 1688), which finally led to serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches and the Protestant English elite strongly opposed to this. Moreover, the birth of his son James Francis Edward (his only male heir and baptized Catholic) in June 1688 contributed to the fear of the Protestant English elite to be run over by a Catholic dynasty. They sent a petition to [[William of Orange]] (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), and they invited him to come to England and to ascend the English throne. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France and later he went to Ireland. This is the so-called [[Glorious Revolution]]. In the mainly Catholic Ireland, James formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying, and he made no attempts to regain the English throne. His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Kohlhammer. Stuttgart. 2004.
Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart.'' Kröner. Stuttgart 1985.
Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands.'' Reclam. Stuttgart. 2007.

James II

2010-06-03T11:36:44Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England from 1685 to 1688.

James II was the son of [[Charles I]] and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he was married to Anne Hyde (a Protestant and the daughter of chancellor Clarendon) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife, he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, James Francis Edward.

James II grew up in exile, in France, due to the civil war in England. He made a career in the French army. But in 1655, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore France became an enemy of the English royal family. That is the reason why James and the whole royal family went to the part of the Netherlands which was under Spanish rule. In 1658, James joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought together with the Spanish troops against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of the monarchy.

In religious terms, James was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother. He was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. The fact that he was a Catholic became a serious problem during his reign because the English people were very suspicious of Catholics after the events of Mary I and the Gunpowder Plot. James II strongly supported the English Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the ''Test Acts'', which was to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from Court and Parliament. In 1687, James II proclaimed the ''Declaration of Indulgence'', which suspended the ''Test Acts'' and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of Parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic ''Declaration of Indulgence'' (April 1688), which finally led to serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches and the Protestant English elite strongly opposed to this. They sent a petition to [[William of Orange]] (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), and they invited him to come to England and to ascend the English throne. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France and later he went to Ireland. This is the so-called [[Glorious Revolution]]. In the mainly Catholic Ireland, James formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying. His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Kohlhammer. Stuttgart. 2004.

James II

2010-06-03T11:20:28Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England from 1685 to 1688.

James II was the son of [[Charles I]] and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he was married to Anne Hyde (a Protestant and the daughter of chancellor Clarendon) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife, he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, James Francis Edward.

James II grew up in exile, in France, due to the civil war in England. He made a career in the French army. But in 1655, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore France became an enemy of the English royal family. That is the reason why James and the whole royal family went to the part of the Netherlands which was under Spanish rule. In 1658, James joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought together with the Spanish troops against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of the monarchy.

In religious terms, James was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother. He was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. The fact that he was a Catholic became a serious problem during his reign because the English people were very suspicious of Catholics after the events of Mary I and the Gunpowder Plot. James II strongly supported the English Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the ''Test Acts'', which was to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from Court and Parliament. In 1687, James II proclaimed the ''Declaration of Indulgence'', which suspended the ''Test Acts'' and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of Parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic ''Declaration of Indulgence'' (April 1688), which finally led to serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches and the Protestant English elite strongly opposed to this. They sent a petition to [[William of Orange]] (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), and they invited him to the English throne. This is the so-called Glorious Revolution. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France and later he went to Ireland. In the mainly Catholic Ireland he formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the Battle of the Boyne (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying.
His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Kohlhammer. Stuttgart. 2004.

James II

2010-06-03T11:05:35Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England from 1685 to 1688.

James II was the son of [[Charles I]] and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he was married to Anne Hyde (a Protestant and the daughter of chancellor Clarendon) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife, he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, James Francis Edward.

James II grew up in exile, in France, due to the civil war in England. He made a career in the French army. But in 1655, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore France became an enemy of the English royal family. That is the reason why James and the whole royal family went to the part of the Netherlands which was under Spanish rule. In 1658, James joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought together with the Spanish troops against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of the monarchy.

In religious terms, James was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother. He was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. The fact that he was a Catholic became a serious problem during his reign because the English people were very suspicious of Catholics after the events of Mary I and the Gunpowder Plot. He strongly supported Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the Test Act, which was to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from court and parliament. In 1687, James II’s Declaration o Indulgence suspended the Test Acts and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic Declaration of Indulgence (April 1688), which finally led to serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches and the Protestant English elite opposed to this. A petition was sent to William of Orange (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), which invited him to the English throne. This is the so-called Glorious Revolution. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France and later he went to Ireland. In the mainly Catholic Ireland he formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the Battle of the Boyne (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying.
His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Kohlhammer. Stuttgart. 2004.

James II

2010-06-03T11:04:23Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England from 1685 to 1688.

James II was the son of [[Charles I]] and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he was married to Anne Hyde (a Protestant and the daughter of chancellor [[Clarendon]]) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife, he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, [[James Francis Edward]].

James II grew up in exile, in France, due to the civil war in England. He made a career in the French army. But in 1655, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore France became an enemy of the English royal family. That is the reason why James and the whole royal family went to the part of the Netherlands which was under Spanish rule. In 1658, James joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought together with the Spanish troops against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of the monarchy.

In religious terms, James was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother. He was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. The fact that he was a Catholic became a serious problem during his reign because the English people were very suspicious of Catholics after the events of Mary I and the Gunpowder Plot. He strongly supported Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the Test Act, which was to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from court and parliament. In 1687, James II’s Declaration o Indulgence suspended the Test Acts and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic Declaration of Indulgence (April 1688), which finally led to serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches and the Protestant English elite opposed to this. A petition was sent to William of Orange (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), which invited him to the English throne. This is the so-called Glorious Revolution. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France and later he went to Ireland. In the mainly Catholic Ireland he formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the Battle of the Boyne (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying.
His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Kohlhammer. Stuttgart. 2004.

James II

2010-06-02T18:19:01Z

Gloriana:

1633-1701. King of England 1685-1688.

He was the son of Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria. He succeeded his older brother Charles II to the English (and Scottish) throne. First, he married Anne Hyde (the daughter of chancellor Clarendon) with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Anne. After the death of his first wife he married Mary of Modena (a Catholic) and had a son with her, James Francis Edward.

James II grew up in exile, namely in France, due to the civil war in England. He made career in the French military. But then, France became an ally of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England at that time, and therefore an enemy of the royal family. That is the reason why James went to the Netherlands and in 1658 he joined the Spanish army. On his brother’s wish, he fought alongside Spain against the united English and French troops. He returned to England in 1660 after the restoration of monarchy.

In religious terms, James was strongly influenced by his Catholic mother and he was himself a devout Catholic since 1668. His Catholicism became a problem during his reign. He strongly supported Catholics and gave them many important posts. According to Parliament, these pro-Catholic policies were against the Test Act, which was to guarantee the exclusion of Catholics from court and parliament. In 1687, James II’s Declaration o Indulgence suspended the Test Acts and some other anti-Catholic laws. Thus, he was accused of suspending laws without the consent of parliament. But it was his second pro-Catholic Declaration of Indulgence (April 1688), which finally led to serious trouble. This declaration was supposed to be pronounced in the Anglican churches and the Protestant English elite opposed to this. A petition was sent to William of Orange (husband of James’s eldest and Protestant daughter Mary), which invited him to the English throne. This is the so-called Glorious Revolution. Dutch troops landed in England on the 5th of November 1588. James II fled to France and later he went to Ireland. In the mainly Catholic Ireland he formed a troop against William of Orange. But after a series of defeats against William’s troops, most famously at the Siege of Derry and at the Battle of the Boyne (1690), he finally left for the continent.

He lived in French exile until his death in 1701. He spent most of his time meditating and praying.
His claim to the English and Scottish throne was supported by Jacobites.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts.'' Kohlhammer. Stuttgart. 2004.

James II

2010-06-02T18:17:43Z

Gloriana:

William IV

2010-05-31T15:59:43Z

Gloriana:

1765-1837. Son of [[George III]]. King of England 1830-1837.

He succeeded his brother George IV to the throne, when he was already 64 years old.

The King's Two Bodies

2010-05-16T13:13:43Z

Gloriana:

It refers to the idea that a monarch possesses two bodies: a body natural and a body politic (also called sacred body).

The body natural of a king or queen needs sleep, food, etc. and is subject to sickness and death. It is like the normal body of a human being. The body politic, on the other hand, is invisible and immortal. It is made for directing the people. The existence of the body politic is the reason why it is right to say that the king never dies. As the body politic never dies, the king cannot die either. The body natural of a king can of course die, but as soon as that has happened, the body politic changes position and it is transferred into the body natural of the next king. This is also the reason why one never speaks of the death of the king, but of the demise of the king.

This distinction between the body natural and the body politic is useful for legal purposes and to underpin monarchical hegemony. First of all, the theory ensures that all laws keep their validity and that the royal property rights remain intact during the transition from one king to the next. Furthermore, there is no power vacuum because the transfer of the body politic from one king to the next happens immediately after the death of the body natural of a king. By applying this theory, all the power structures are maintained. Apart from these reasons, there is also the fact, that this theory gives the monarchy a sacred tinge, which distinguishes it from the rest of the people.

Queen Elizabeth I used the theory to ensure her reign and to get rid of the problem of being a woman and not a man. In her famous Tilbury Speech (1588), she underlined that she had two bodies. She said that her body natural was that of a weak woman, but that her body politic was the body of a strong and powerful man, who was able to rule England. She distinguished between her female body natural and her male body politic. The famous writer Edmund Spenser also described the two bodies of Queen Elizabeth I in ''The Faerie Queene''. On the one hand, he described Elizabeth as a beautiful and adorable lady, and on the other hand as a ruling monarch.

== Sources ==
* Axton, Marie. ''The Queen's Two Bodies. Drama and the Elizabethan Succession''. London: Royal Historical Society, 1977.
* Kantorowicz, Ernst H. ''The King's Two Bodies. A Study in Medieval Political Theology''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957.
* Suerbaum, Ulrich. ''Das Elisabethanische Zeitalter.'' Stuttgart: Reclam, 1989.

The King's Two Bodies

2010-05-16T13:09:30Z

Gloriana:

It refers to the idea that a monarch possesses two bodies: a body natural and a body politic (also called sacred body).

The body natural of a king or queen needs sleep, food, etc. and is subject to sickness and death. It is like the normal body of a human being. The body politic, on the other hand, is invisible and immortal. It is made for directing the people. The existence of the body politic is the reason why it is right to say that the king never dies. As the body politic never dies, the king cannot die either. The body natural of a king can of course die, but as soon as that has happened, the body politic changes position and it is transferred into the body natural of the next king. This is also the reason why one never speaks of the death of the king, but of the demise of the king.

This distinction between the body natural and the body politic is useful for legal purposes and to underpin monarchical hegemony. First of all, the theory ensures that all laws keep their validity and that the royal property rights remain intact during the transition from one king to the next. Furthermore, there is no power vacuum because the transfer of the body politic from one king to the next happens immediately after the death of the body natural of a king. By applaying this theory, all the power structures are maintained. Apart from these reasons, there is also the fact, that this theory gives the monarchy a sacred tinge, which distinguishes it from the rest of the people.

Queen Elizabeth I used the theory to ensure her reign and to get rid of the problem of being a woman and not a man. In her famous Tilbury Speech (1588), she underlined that she had two bodies. She said that her body natural was that of a weak woman, but that her body politic was the body of a strong and powerful man, who was able to rule England. She distinguished between her female body natural and her male body politic. The famous writer Edmund Spenser also described the two bodies of Queen Elizabeth I in ''The Faerie Queene''. On the one hand, he described Elizabeth as a beautiful and adorable lady, and on the other hand as a ruling monarch.

== Sources ==
* Axton, Marie. ''The Queen's Two Bodies. Drama and the Elizabethan Succession''. London: Royal Historical Society, 1977.
* Kantorowicz, Ernst H. ''The King's Two Bodies. A Study in Medieval Political Theology''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957.
* Suerbaum, Ulrich. ''Das Elisabethanische Zeitalter.'' Stuttgart: Reclam, 1989.

The King's Two Bodies

2010-05-16T12:52:51Z

Gloriana:

The idea that a monarch possesses two bodies: a body natural and a body politic, which is also called sacred body.

The body natural needs sleep, food etc. and is subject to sickness and death. It is like the normal body of a human being. The body politic, on the other hand, is invisible and immortal. It is also the reason why it is right to say that the king never dies. As the body politic cannot die, the king cannot die either. The body natural of a king can of course die, but as soon as that has happened, the body politic changes position and goes into the body natural of the next king. This is the reason why one never speaks of the death of the king, but of the demise of the king.

This distinction between the body natural and the body politic is useful for legal purposes and to underpin monarchical hegemony. Concerning the leagal reasons, the theory ensures that all laws keep their validity and the royal property rights remain intact during the transition from one king to the next. Furthermore, there is no power vacuum because the transfer of the body politic from one king to the next happens immediately after the death of the body natural. By applaying this theory, all the power structures are maintained. Apart from these reasons, there is also the fact, that this theory gives the monarchy a sacred tinge, which distinguishes them from the rest of the people.

Elizabeth I used the theory to ensure her reign and get rid of the problem of being a woman and not a man. In her famous Tilbury Speech (1588) she underlined that she had two bodies. She said that her body natural was that of a weak woman, but her body politic was the body of a strong and powerful man, who was able to rule England.

== Sources ==
* Axton, Marie. ''The Queen's Two Bodies. Drama and the Elizabethan Succession''. London: Royal Historical Society, 1977.
* Kantorowicz, Ernst H. ''The King's Two Bodies. A Study in Medieval Political Theology''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957.
* Suerbaum, Ulrich. ''Das Elisabethanische Zeitalter.'' Stuttgart: Reclam, 1989.

The King's Two Bodies

2010-05-16T12:52:00Z

Gloriana:

The idea that a monarch possesses two bodies: a body natural and a body politic, which is also called sacred body.
The body natural needs sleep, food etc. and is subject to sickness and death. It is like the normal body of a human being. The body politic, on the other hand, is invisible and immortal. It is also the reason why it is right to say that the king never dies. As the body politic cannot die, the king cannot die either. The body natural of a king can of course die, but as soon as that has happened, the body politic changes position and goes into the body natural of the next king. This is the reason why one never speaks of the death of the king, but of the demise of the king.
This distinction between the body natural and the body politic is useful for legal purposes and to underpin monarchical hegemony. Concerning the leagal reasons, the theory ensures that all laws keep their validity and the royal property rights remain intact during the transition from one king to the next. Furthermore, there is no power vacuum because the transfer of the body politic from one king to the next happens immediately after the death of the body natural. By applaying this theory, all the power structures are maintained. Apart from these reasons, there is also the fact, that this theory gives the monarchy a sacred tinge, which distinguishes them from the rest of the people.

Elizabeth I used the theory to ensure her reign and get rid of the problem of being a woman and not a man. In her famous Tilbury Speech (1588) she underlined that she had two bodies. She said that her body natural was that of a weak woman, but her body politic was the body of a strong and powerful man, who was able to rule England.

== Sources ==
* Axton, Marie. ''The Queen's Two Bodies. Drama and the Elizabethan Succession''. London: Royal Historical Society, 1977.
* Kantorowicz, Ernst H. ''The King's Two Bodies. A Study in Medieval Political Theology''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957.
* Suerbaum, Ulrich. ''Das Elisabethanische Zeitalter.'' Stuttgart: Reclam, 1989.

Henry VII

2010-05-03T17:17:25Z

Gloriana:

(1457-1509) Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, later Henry VII, King of England (1485-1509)

Henry VII was the first king of the Tudor dynasty. He was the son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. He was related to John of Gaunt, and hence a member of the House of Lancaster. He opposed King [[Richard III]] from the House of York and was constantly getting more and more supporters until the decisive battle. Henry fought against Richard III during the War of the Roses and defeated him in the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485), in which Richard III died. This marked the end of the War of the Roses. Still on the battlefield, Lord Stanley handed the crown over to Henry, who declared himself King of England. He based his claims on the fact that he was a member of the House of Lancaster, although these claims were rather meagre because the dynasty was inherited by his mother (female line only) and by John of Gaunt’s illegitimate son John Beaufort. Moreover, Henry claimed to have defeated a usurper and a villain as Richard III was supposed to be responsible for killing his nephews in the Tower in order to become king himself. That is why Henry had a great number of supporters, who also supported his claims to become king.

After becoming king, Henry VII married Elizabeth of York in 1486. She was the daughter of the former King Edward IV and a member of the House of York. The unification of the two erstwhile hostile dynasties (Lancaster and York) was celebrated as the start of a new dynasty, the Tudor dynasty, and as the beginning of a new peaceful time for England. Most historians nowadays see this as part of the [[Tudor Myth]].

The first son of Henry and Elizabeth was born in 1486, and he was named Arthur in order to create a bond to the mystical king Arthur. In 1489, Henry formed an alliance with the thriving Spanish. The agreement involved a marriage of Arthur with Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of the king and queen of Spain. Shortly after the marriage in 1501, Arthur died, and it was determined that Henry’s second son Henry was to marry Catherine to fulfill the agreement. Henry VII also had two daughters, Margaret and Mary. They were both strategically married to form further alliances. Margaret married James IV, King of Scotland, and Mary became the wife of Louis XII, King of France. Henry VII was succeeded by his son Henry, who became King [[Henry VIII]] of England in 1509 after his father's death.

Sources:

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts''. Stuttgart. Kohlhammer. 2004.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart''. Stuttgart. Kröner. 3. Auflage. 1985.

Henry VII

2010-05-03T16:59:15Z

Gloriana:

(1457-1509) Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, later Henry VII, King of England (1485-1509)
Henry VII was the first king of the Tudor dynasty. He was the son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. He was related to John of Gaunt, and hence a member of the House of Lancaster. He opposed king [[Richard III]] from the House of York and was constantly getting more and more supporters until the decisive battle. Henry fought against Richard III during the War of the Roses and defeated him in the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485), in which Richard III died. This marked the end of the War of the Roses. Still on the battlefield, Lord Stanley handed the crown over to Henry, who declared himself King of England. He based his claims on the fact that he was a member of the House of Lancaster, although these claims were rather meagre because the dynasty was inherited by his mother (female line only) and by John of Gaunt’s illegitimate son John Beaufort. Moreover, Henry claimed to have defeated a usurper and a villain as Richard III was supposed to be responsible for killing his nephews in the Tower in order to become king himself. That is why Henry had a great number of supporters, who also supported his claims to become king.

After becoming king, Henry VII married Elizabeth of York in 1486. She was the daughter of the former King Edward IV and a member of the House of York. The unification of the two erstwhile hostile dynasties (Lancaster and York) was celebrated as the start of a new dynasty, the Tudor dynasty, and as the beginning of a new peaceful time for England. Most historians nowadays see this as part of the [[Tudor Myth]].

The first son of Henry and Elizabeth was born in 1486, and he was named Arthur in order to create a bond to the mystical king Arthur. In 1489, Henry formed an alliance with the thriving Spanish. The agreement involved a marriage of Arthur with Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of the king and queen of Spain. Shortly after the marriage in 1501, Arthur died, and it was determined that Henry’s second son Henry was to marry Catherine to fulfill the agreement. Henry VII was succeeded by his son Henry, who became king [[Henry VIII]] of England.

Sources:

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts''. Stuttgart. Kohlhammer. 2004.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart''. Stuttgart. Kröner. 3. Auflage. 1985.

Henry VII

2010-05-03T15:33:55Z

Gloriana:

(1457-1509) Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, later Henry VII, King of England (1485-1509)
Henry VII was the first king of the Tudor dynasty. He was the son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. He was related to John of Gaunt, and thereby a member of the House of Lancaster. He opposed king [[Richard III]] from the house of York and was constantly getting more and more supporters until the decisive battle. Henry fought against Richard III during the War of the Roses and defeated him in the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485), in which Richard III died. This marked the end of the War of the Roses. Still on the battlefield, Lord Stanley handed the crown over to Henry, who declared himself King of England. He based his claims on the fact that he was a member of the house of Lancaster, although these claims were rather meagre because the dynasty was inherited by his mother (female line only) and by John of Gaunt’s illegitimate son John Beaufort. Moreover, Henry claimed to have defeated a usurper and a villain as Richard III was supposed to be responsible for killing his nephews in the Tower in order to become king himself. That is why Henry had a great number of supporters, who also supported his claims to become king. After becoming king, Henry VII married Elizabeth of York in 1486. She was the daughter of the former King Edward IV and a member of the house of York. The unification of the two erstwhile hostile dynasties (Lancaster and York) was celebrated as the start of a new dynasty, the Tudor dynasty, and as the beginning of a new peaceful time for England. Most historians nowadays see this as part of the [[Tudor Myth]]. The first son of Henry and Elizabeth was born in 1486, and he was named Arthur in order to create a bond to the mystical king Arthur. In 1489, Henry formed an alliance with the thriving Spain. The agreement involved a marriage of Henry’s oldest son Arthur with Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of the king and queen of Spain. Shortly after the marriage in 1501, Arthur died, and it was determined that Henry’s second son Henry was to marry Catherine of Aragon to fulfil the agreement. Henry VII was succeeded by his son Henry, who became king Henry VIII of England.

Sources:

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts''. Stuttgart. Kohlhammer. 2004.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart''. Stuttgart. Kröner. 3. Auflage. 1985.

Henry VII

2010-05-03T15:33:00Z

Gloriana:

(1457-1509) Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, later Henry VII, King of England (1485-1509)
Henry VII was the first king of the Tudor dynasty. He was the son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. He was related to John of Gaunt, and thereby a member of the House of Lancaster. He opposed king [[Richard III]] from the house of York and was constantly getting more and more supporters until the decisive battle. Henry fought against Richard III during the War of the Roses and defeated him in the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485), in which Richard III died. This marked the end of the War of the Roses. Still on the battlefield, Lord Stanley handed the crown over to Henry, who declared himself King of England. He based his claims on the fact that he was a member of the house of Lancaster, although these claims were rather meagre because the dynasty was inherited by his mother (female line only) and by John of Gaunt’s illegitimate son John Beaufort. Moreover, Henry claimed to have defeated a usurper and a villain as Richard III was supposed to be responsible for killing his nephews in the Tower in order to become king himself. That is why Henry had a great number of supporters, who also supported his claims to become king. After becoming king, Henry VII married Elizabeth of York in 1486. She was the daughter of the former King Edward IV and a member of the house of York. The unification of the two erstwhile hostile dynasties (Lancaster and York) was celebrated as the start of a new dynasty, the Tudor dynasty, and as the beginning of a new peaceful time for England. Most historians nowadays see this as part of the [[Tudor Myth]]. The first son of Henry and Elizabeth was born in 1486, and he was named Arthur in order to create a bond to the mystical king Arthur. In 1489, Henry formed an alliance with the thriving Spain. The agreement involved a marriage of Henry’s oldest son Arthur with Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of the king and queen of Spain. Shortly after the marriage in 1501, Arthur died, and it was determined that Henry’s second son Henry was to marry Catherine of Aragon to fulfil the agreement. Henry VII was succeeded by his son Henry, who became king Henry VIII of England.

Sources:

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts''. Stuttgart. Kohlhammer. 2004.
Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart''. Stuttgart. Kröner. 3. Auflage. 1985.

Henry VII

2010-05-03T13:47:14Z

Gloriana:

(1457-1509) Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, later Henry VII, King of England (1485-1509)
He was the son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. He was the first Tudor King. Henry was related to John of Gaunt, and thereby a member of the House of Lancaster. He opposed [[Richard III]] and was constantly getting more and more supporters until the decisive battle. Henry fought against Richard III during the War of the Roses and defeated him in the Battle of Bosworth Field, in which Richard III died (1485). This marked the end of the War of the Roses. Henry declared himself King of England. He based his claims on the fact that he was a member of the house of Lancaster, although these claims were rather meagre because the dynasty was inherited by his mother (female line only) and by John of Gaunt’s illegitimate son John Beaufort. Moreover, Henry claimed to have defeated a usurper and a villain as Richard III was supposed to be responsible for killing his nephews in order to become King himself. That is why Henry had a great number of supporters, who also supported his claims to become King. After becoming King, he married Elizabeth of York in 1486. She was the daughter of the former King Edward IV and belonged to the House of York. The unification of the two erstwhile hostile dynasties (Lancaster and York) was celebrated as the start of a new dynasty (Tudor), and a new peaceful time for England. Most historians nowadays see this as part of the [[Tudor Myth]].

Sources:

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts''. Stuttgart. Kohlhammer. 2004.
Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart''. Stuttgart. Kröner. 3. Auflage. 1985.

Henry VII

2010-04-28T17:34:33Z

Gloriana:

Henry VII

2010-04-28T17:29:43Z

Gloriana:

(1457-1509) Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, later Henry VII King of England (1485-1509). Son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. He was the first Tudor King. He was related to John of Gaunt, and thereby a member of the House of Lancaster. He opposed Richard III and was constantly getting more and more supporters until the decisive battle. Henry fought against Richard III during the War of the Roses and defeated him in the Battle of Bosworth Field, in which Richard III died (1485). This marked the end of the War of the Roses. Henry declared himself King of England. He based his claims on the fact that he was a member of the house of Lancaster, although these claims were rather meagre because the dynasty was inherited by his mother (female line only) and by John of Gaunt’s illegitimate son John Beaufort. Moreover, Henry claimed to have defeated a usurper and a villain as Richard III was supposed to be responsible for killing his nephews in order to become King himself. That is why Henry had a great number of supporters, who also supported his claims to become King. After he became King, he married Elizabeth of York in 1486. She was the daughter of the former King Edward IV and belonged to the House of York. The unification of the two erstwhile hostile dynasties (Lancaster and York) was celebrated as the start of a new dynasty (Tudor), and a new peaceful time for England. Most historians nowadays see this as part of the Tudor Myth.

Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts''. Stuttgart. Kohlhammer.2004.

Henry VII

2010-04-28T17:27:18Z

Gloriana: