British Culture - User contributions [en]

Easter Rising

2011-11-14T16:42:11Z

Friday:

== 1. Background ==

''' 1.1 Home Rule'''

The third attempt to gain Home-Rule finally succeeded in 1912 and caused enmity by Ulster-Unionists. Lord Edward Carson founded the Ulster Volunteer Force in order to defend the Unionist interest. Parallel to this development the Irish Volunteers were formed in 1913 by Eoin Macneill. In 1914, the Home-Rule Bill was passed in Parliament, yet it was suspended until the end of the First World War.

'''1.2 Preparation for the Rising'''

On the one hand, the First World War put a temporary end to the Irish agitation for independence yet it also meant the final failure of achieving independence by parliamentary means. Radical elements within the Republican movement, especially leading figures from the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) such as Padraig Pearce, saw England’s difficulty as Ireland’s opportunity. They wanted to liberate Ireland by force and not by constitutional talks. Pearce was joined by Socialist James Connolly and the Irish Citizen Army. Together they seized the leadership of the Irish Volunteers and founded a circle within the leadership which excluded Eoin Macneill. They started to plan the upcoming rising and ensured internal as well as external support. In order to ensure the success of the rising, Roger Casement was sent to Germany to negotiate for weapons and troops. With American money Casement bought 20.000 rifles, 10 machine guns and sufficient ammunition. These were supposed to arrive in Ireland by 23. April, Easter Sunday, 1916.

== 2. The Rising ==

However, the ship arrived two days early, was captured by the British and then brought to Cork where the captain dumped the load to ensure that it did not fall into the wrong hands. In the meantime Eoin Macneill became aware of the plans and gave a countermanding order to cancel the mobilization of the Irish Volunteers. The Rising got underway on 24. April 1916 with 1600 volunteers which was only a fraction of the planned man power and yet they caught the British by surprise. They seized the control of key buildings within Dublin and minor actions got underway in other cities such as Cork and Galway. In the captured General Post Office in Dublin, Pearce proclaimed the first Irish Republic and set the tone for what was to come in the future. The Irish Republic lasted for only a week; it was reduced to rubble by British artillery, a fact that James Connolly never thought possible because he thought that Capitalists would not shell their own buildings. The leaders of the Rising were arrested and brought to Kilmainham Gaol and shot there. In some cases the execution was executed under inhumane conditions. James Connolly was one example: He had been severely wounded during the fighting and as he was thus unable to stand up, he had to be tied to a chair in order to be shot.

== 3. Consequences of the Rising ==

Initially the reaction to the Rising had been hostile because it counteracted the British war effort and it had laid Dublin into ruins, but this changed due to the extremely severe measures of the British Governor Sir John Maxwell. The leaders became national saints; the proclamation of an Irish Republic fuelled the hearts and minds of the Irish with a spirit of resistance and freedom, which subsequently lead to the War of Independence.

'''Sources'''

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Irlands'' Stuttgart:Reclam,2009.

English, Richard. ''Irish Freedom The History of Nationalism in Ireland.'' Oxford: Macmillan,2006

Easter Rising

2011-11-12T21:38:03Z

Friday:

== 1. Background ==

''' 1.1 Home Rule'''

The third attempt to gain Home-Rule finally succeeded in 1912 and caused enmity by Ulster-Unionists. Lord Edward Carson founded the Ulster Volunteer Force in order to defend the Unionist interest. Parallel to this development the Irish Volunteers were formed in 1913 by Eoin Macneill. In 1914, the Home-Rule Bill was passed in Parliament, yet it was suspended until the end of the First World War.

'''1.2 Preparation for the Rising'''

On the one hand, the First World War put a temporary end to the Irish agitation for independence yet it also meant the final failure of achieving independence by parliamentary means. Radical elements within the Republican movement, especially leading figures from the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) such as Padraig Pearce, saw England’s difficulty as Ireland’s opportunity. They wanted to liberate Ireland by force and not by constitutional talks. Pearce was joined by Socialist James Connolly and the Irish Citizen Army. Together they seized the leadership of the Irish Volunteers and founded a circle within the leadership which excluded Eoin Macneill. They started to plan the upcoming rising and ensured internal as well as external support. In order to ensure the success of the rising, Roger Casement was sent to Germany to negotiate for weapons and troops. With American money Casement bought 20.000 rifles, 10 machine guns and sufficient ammunition. These were supposed to arrive in Ireland by 23. April, Easter Sunday, 1916.

== 2. The Rising ==

However, the ship arrived two days early, was captured by the British and then brought to Cork where the captain dumped the load to ensure that it did not fall into the wrong hands. In the meantime Eoin Macneill became aware of the plans and gave a countermanding order to cancel the mobilization of the Irish Volunteers. The Rising got underway on 24. April 1916 with 1600 volunteers which was only a fraction of the planned man power and yet they caught the British by surprise. They seized the control of key buildings within Dublin and minor actions got underway in other cities such as Cork and Galway. In the captured General Post Office in Dublin, Pearce proclaimed the first Irish Republic and set the tone for what was to come in the future. The Irish Republic lasted for only a week; it was reduced to rubble by British artillery, a fact that James Connolly never thought possible because he thought that Capitalists would not shell their own buildings. The leaders of the Rising were arrested and brought to Kilmainham Gaol and shot there. In some cases the execution was executed under inhumane conditions. James Connolly was one example: He had been severely wounded during the fighting and as he was thus unable to stand up, he had to be tied to a chair in order to be shot.

== 3. Consequences of the Rising ==

Initially the reaction to the Rising had been hostile because it counteracted the British war effort and it had laid Dublin into ruins, but this changed due to the extremely severe measures of the British Governor Sir John Maxwell. The leaders became national saints; the proclamation of an Irish Republic fuelled the hearts and minds of the Irish with a spirit of resistance and freedom, which subsequently lead to the War of Independence.

'''Sources'''

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Irlands'' Stuttgart:rReclam,2009.

English, Richard. ''Irish Freedom The History of Nationalism in Ireland.'' Oxford: Macmillan,2006

First bloody Sunday 1920

2011-11-02T15:43:24Z

Friday: Created page with ' == '''I. Background to the event''' == == I.A. Guerilla War in the countryside == The atrocity of the first Bloody Sunday was framed by the Irish War of Independence, las…'

== '''I. Background to the event''' ==

== I.A. Guerilla War in the countryside ==
The atrocity of the first Bloody Sunday was framed by the Irish War of Independence, lasting from 1919-1921. This war was characterized by its irregular character: The conflict was not between two regular state forces but between guerilla IRA units called the ''Flying Columns'', ''the Royal Irish Constabulary'' (RIC) and British paramilitary forces named the ''Black and Tans''. The ''Flying Columns''attacked police barracks, military garrisons and convoys; they also captured rural towns in ''Munster'' and ''Connaught'', therefore establishing control over the Irish countryside. The RIC and the ''Black Tans'', which were sent in as support for the RIC, answered with heavy reprisals: looting towns and harassing the local population.

== I.B. Intelligence War in Dublin ==

In addition to the war waged in the countryside, the ''IRA'' campaigned in Dublin against the ''G Division'' of the Dublin Metropolitan Police. The G Division’s primary aim was to infiltrate the IRA and inform the local authorities in Dublin Castle about members of the IRA previously unknown to the'' RIC'' and the'' Black and Tans''. Furthermore, the ''IRA'' attacked British intelligence operatives. One of those attacks against members of the G Division and British intelligence operatives lead to the first Bloody Sunday.

== ''' II. The 21 November 1921 Bloody Sunday''' ==

== II.A. The morning of the 21 first November ==

A well planned ''IRA'' operation got underway in the early morning of the 21. November. Gunmen were sent out to different parts of Dublin City with orders to kill. The result was the death of 12 British officers, all but one members of a counter-terrorist network. This heavy blow to the British forces was to be retaliated in the afternoon of the same day

== II.B. The Gaelic football match ==

A Gaelic football match took place in the ''Croak Park'' stadium in Dublin in the afternoon of the same day. The ''Black and Tans'' surrounded the place in order to search for ''IRA'' suspects; they began to shoot into the crowd, leaving 12 people dead, many of them in the ensuing stampede.

== '''III. The aftermath of Bloody Sunday''' ==

In the aftermath of Bloody Sunday Martial Law was declared, transporting the conflict into a new dimension. Before Bloody Sunday, it could be argued that the conflict in Ireland was merely a fight of a little Irish Guerilla Army against police and paramilitary forces but afterwards, it was a fight of a little Irish Guerilla Army against the British Nation and its colonial regime. Furthermore, the killing of innocent civilians attending their Sunday pasttime inevitably lead to a crisis in colonial government and a questioning of British imperial rule especially by liberal British politicians and publicists like ''Erskine Childers'' .

== '''IV. Bibliography''' ==

Foster, R.F. ''Modern Ireland 1600-1972''.London: Penguin Press, 1989.

Kee, Robert. ''The Green Flag A History of Irish Nationaliism''. London: Penguin Books, 2000.

Irish Tenant Right League

2010-12-04T12:25:16Z

Friday:

== I. Structural changes in Irish agriculture after the Famine and its consequences ==

'''I.A. Structural changes due to the Famine'''

Famine and mass emigration lead to structural changes in Irish agriculture. In 1845 only 36 per cent of the farmed land was above 15 acres and 24 per cent was lower than 5 acres. In 1851 however the farmed land which was above 15 acres increased to 51 per cent and the farmed land which was below 5 acres decreased to 15 per cent. ( Maurer p.228)The aim was to create sustainable farms yet this lead to problems for the small farmers.

'''I.B. Mass evictions of Irish peasants'''

The consequence of this aim was that landowners were less willing to give land to small tenants. Either the owners wanted to keep the prosperous pieces of land to themselves or they were not willing to pay the poor relief. This had to be paid for the small tenants in the event of a new famine. Consequently, small tenants were massively evicted: 6026 persons in 1846, 9657 in 1848, 16686 in 1849 and 19949 in 1850 (Maurer p.229).

== II. Absenteeism and the Irish Tenant Right League ==

'''II.A. Absenteeism'''

These mass evictions proved problematic because the great landlords were not present in Ireland and dealt with their tenants through middlemen. This system had been around since the penal laws i.e. 1660but in the 1850s it lead to a new form of mass organization and the connection with Home Rule policy. Since in the eyes of Irish reformers the land question was not solvable in a Union or a commonwealth, only self government could bring a solution.
'''
II.B. The Irish Tenant Right League'''

Tenant leagues had been around since the first one was founded in 1847 by James Finton Lalor. In 1850, around 20 tenant leagues existed by then, Charles Duffy founded the nationwide Irish Tenant Right League in order to introduce the Ulster customs to the entire Island of Ireland. The league demanded the ”Three F’s”: Fair rent, fixity of tenure and free sale of land. The introduction of those reforms was only possible if they could gain influence on Irish Mp’s and to force them to form an Irish independent party.

== III. The Irish Tenant Right League as a parliamentary force ==

The Irish Tenant Right League was able to convince a large amount of Irish MP’s to not support the British government if Westminster showed no concern for the Irish concerns. Due to this policy they were able to bring down the government of Lord Russel. In the upcoming election of 1852 some 50 members of the Tenant Right League were elected to Westminster. However, they were not able to pursue their influence any further because two MP’s broke the pledge and supported the British government against Irish tenant interests. Due to this fact the movement fell apart and was unable to complete its success.

== IV. Sources ==

Maurer, Michael. Kleine Geschichte Irlands ,Stuttgart:Reclam,2009.

Bew, Paul. Ireland The Politics of Enmity 1789-2006, Oxford: OUP 2007.

Irish Tenant Right League

2010-12-04T12:24:56Z

Friday:

== I. Structural changes in Irish agriculture after the Famine and its consequences ==

'''I.A. Structural changes due to the Famine'''

Famine and mass emigration lead to structural changes in Irish agriculture. In 1845 only 36 per cent of the farmed land was above 15 acres and 24 per cent was lower than 5 acres. In 1851 however the farmed land which was above 15 acres increased to 51 per cent and the farmed land which was below 5 acres decreased to 15 per cent. ( Maurer p.228)The aim was to create sustainable farms yet this lead to problems for the small farmers.

'''I.B. Mass evictions of Irish peasants'''

The consequence of this aim was that landowners were less willing to give land to small tenants. Either the owners wanted to keep the prosperous pieces of land to themselves or they were not willing to pay the poor relief. This had to be paid for the small tenants in the event of a new famine. Consequently, small tenants were massively evicted: 6026 persons in 1846, 9657 in 1848, 16686 in 1849 and 19949 in 1850 (Maurer p.229).

== II. Absenteeism and the Irish Tenant Right League ==

'''II.A. Absenteeism'''

These mass evictions proved problematic because the great landlords were not present in Ireland and dealt with their tenants through middlemen. This system had been around since the penal laws i.e. 1660but in the 1850s it lead to a new form of mass organization and the connection with Home Rule policy. Since in the eyes of Irish reformers the land question was not solvable in a Union or a commonwealth, only self government could bring a solution.
'''
II.B. The Irish Tenant Right League'''

Tenant leagues had been around since the first one was founded in 1847 by James Finton Lalor. In 1850, around 20 tenant leagues existed by then, Charles Duffy founded the nationwide Irish Tenant Right League in order to introduce the Ulster customs to the entire Island of Ireland. The league demanded the ”Three F’s”: Fair rent, fixity of tenure and free sale of land. The introduction of those reforms was only possible if they could gain influence on Irish Mp’s and to force them to form an Irish independent party.

== III. The Irish Tenant Right League as a parliamentary force ==

The Irish Tenant Right League was able to convince a large amount of Irish MP’s to not support the British government if Westminster showed no concern for the Irish concerns. Due to this policy they were able to bring down the government of Lord Russel. In the upcoming election of 1852 some 50 members of the Tenant Right League were elected to Westminster. However, they were not able to pursue their influence any further because two MP’s broke the pledge and supported the British government against Irish tenant interests. Due to this fact the movement fell apart and was unable to complete its success.

== IV. Sources ==

Maurer, Michael. Kleine Geschichte Irlands ,Stuttgart:Reclam,2009.
Bew, Paul. Ireland The Politics of Enmity 1789-2006, Oxford: OUP 2007.

Irish Tenant Right League

2010-12-04T12:24:29Z

Friday: Created page with ' == I. Structural changes in Irish agriculture after the Famine and its consequences == '''I.A. Structural changes due to the Famine''' Famine and mass emigration lead to stru…'

== I. Structural changes in Irish agriculture after the Famine and its consequences ==

'''I.A. Structural changes due to the Famine'''
Famine and mass emigration lead to structural changes in Irish agriculture. In 1845 only 36 per cent of the farmed land was above 15 acres and 24 per cent was lower than 5 acres. In 1851 however the farmed land which was above 15 acres increased to 51 per cent and the farmed land which was below 5 acres decreased to 15 per cent. ( Maurer p.228)The aim was to create sustainable farms yet this lead to problems for the small farmers.

'''I.B. Mass evictions of Irish peasants'''
The consequence of this aim was that landowners were less willing to give land to small tenants. Either the owners wanted to keep the prosperous pieces of land to themselves or they were not willing to pay the poor relief. This had to be paid for the small tenants in the event of a new famine. Consequently, small tenants were massively evicted: 6026 persons in 1846, 9657 in 1848, 16686 in 1849 and 19949 in 1850 (Maurer p.229).

== II. Absenteeism and the Irish Tenant Right League ==

'''II.A. Absenteeism'''
These mass evictions proved problematic because the great landlords were not present in Ireland and dealt with their tenants through middlemen. This system had been around since the penal laws i.e. 1660but in the 1850s it lead to a new form of mass organization and the connection with Home Rule policy. Since in the eyes of Irish reformers the land question was not solvable in a Union or a commonwealth, only self government could bring a solution.
'''
II.B. The Irish Tenant Right League'''
Tenant leagues had been around since the first one was founded in 1847 by James Finton Lalor. In 1850, around 20 tenant leagues existed by then, Charles Duffy founded the nationwide Irish Tenant Right League in order to introduce the Ulster customs to the entire Island of Ireland. The league demanded the ”Three F’s”: Fair rent, fixity of tenure and free sale of land. The introduction of those reforms was only possible if they could gain influence on Irish Mp’s and to force them to form an Irish independent party.

== III. The Irish Tenant Right League as a parliamentary force ==

The Irish Tenant Right League was able to convince a large amount of Irish MP’s to not support the British government if Westminster showed no concern for the Irish concerns. Due to this policy they were able to bring down the government of Lord Russel. In the upcoming election of 1852 some 50 members of the Tenant Right League were elected to Westminster. However, they were not able to pursue their influence any further because two MP’s broke the pledge and supported the British government against Irish tenant interests. Due to this fact the movement fell apart and was unable to complete its success.

== IV. Sources ==

Maurer, Michael. Kleine Geschichte Irlands ,Stuttgart:Reclam,2009.
Bew, Paul. Ireland The Politics of Enmity 1789-2006, Oxford: OUP 2007.

Catholic Emancipation Act

2010-11-07T21:29:00Z

Friday:

Act of Parliament (1829).

== I. Preliminary Discussions about Catholic Emancipation ==

In concession for the approval of the Union between Britain and Ireland British Prime Minister [[William Pitt the Younger]] had offered emancipation for the Catholics, but King [[George III]] was adamantly against it. Thus, in spite of the Union in 1801, nothing had been done by the British Government to grant it. While the question of Irish emancipation was addressed to the Parliament in London the petitions were turned down by the great majority of both houses. Young barristers such as [[Daniel O'Connell]] frequently addressed this topic and other social issues of equality. O’Connell decided to employ a different strategy to achieve Catholic emancipation: Rather than petition for emancipation it was necessary for him to create a democratic social movement.

== II. The Catholic Association as a mass movement and its political implication ==

II.A. The Catholic Association

The Catholic Association, founded in 1823, was not only involved in religious and church-related matters but was also active in addressing political and social problems. O’Connell did show concern for the problems of the Irish peasantry, i.e. poverty and land reform and was also able to win the support of the Catholic clergy. They did not only collect money for the organization, but also preached the sermon of Irish independence and Catholic emancipation. Due to these circumstances religion, politics and social action merged into a powerful movement. Furthermore, O’Connell was able to create a mass basis for his movement: As the fee for the organi-sation was only a penny, poor people were able to join and it was therefore not restricted to the moneyed classes.

II.B. Contesting the Protestant hegemony

After establishing a mass basis and an ideology, the Catholic Association took part in Irish local elections, they were allowed to run within the election but a Catholic candidate was not able to be elected. The first step in the new strategy of the Catholic Association, i.e. to voice concern about Irish emancipation in British parliament, was taken in 1826, when the Protestant nobleman Villiers Stuart won over the Waterford parliamentary seat from the Beresfords. By supporting the Catholic cause Stuart secluded himself from the mainstream public opinion in the Protestant community in Ireland and in Britain which was not in favour of Emancipation. His victory was mainly ensured by the [[40 Shilling Freeholder|40 shilling freeholders]] and by the local clergy agitating for him. Gaining confidence from this victory everywhere in Ireland, counter candidates challenged the given order. The most famous case was the by-election in County Clare in 1828 where O’Connell himself was a candidate. By this move he not only challenged the local elites but also the laws directed against Catholics as they had the right to vote but only for Protestant candidates because Catholics were not allowed to sit in Parliament. During his campaign O’Connell combined Catholic interests with national elements thereby achieving a landslide victory.

== III. The Catholic emancipation act ==

By his major success O’Connell forced the British Prime Minister and the Parliament to discuss Catholic emancipation. The British government under Peel and Wellington at first tried to gain time by investigating the election and by considering banning the Catholic association. The first step was considered as too explosive and the second became redundant as O’Connell dissolved his organization before the government could act. Therefore the only perspective was to introduce the legislation of the Catholic Emancipation Bill to parliament. Since it was passed there, the Bill became an Act of Parliament. It allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament and to take high ranks in Military and in Politics. However, they were not allowed to become Prime Minister or Monarch and in addition to those restrictions the 40 shilling freeholders lost their right to vote due to the First Reform Act. In total it can be stated that by this legislation Catholics and Protestants moved towards a state of quasi equality.

== IV Sources ==

Kramer, Jürgen. ''Britain and Ireland A Concise History''. London: Routledge, 2007.

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Irlands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2009.

Catholic Emancipation Act

2010-11-07T20:52:23Z

Friday:

Act of Parliament (1829).

== I. Preliminary Discussions about Catholic Emancipation ==

In concession for the approval of the Union between Britain and Ireland British Prime Minister [[William Pitt the Younger]] had offered emancipation for the Catholics, but King [[George III]] was adamantly against it. Thus, in spite of the Union in 1801, nothing had been done by the British Government to grant it. While the question of Irish emancipation was addressed to the Parliament in London the petitions were turned down by the great majority of both houses. Young barristers such as [[Daniel O'Connell]] frequently addressed this topic and other social issues of equality. O’Connell decided to employ a different strategy to achieve Catholic emancipation: Rather than petition for emancipation it was necessary for him to create a democratic social movement.

== II. The Catholic Association as a mass movement and its political implication ==

II.A. The Catholic Association

The Catholic Association, founded in 1823, was not only involved in religious and church-related matters but was also active in addressing political and social problems. O’Connell did show concern for the problems of the Irish peasantry, i.e. poverty and land reform and was also able to win the support of the Catholic clergy. They did not only collect money for the organization, but also preached the sermon of Irish independence and Catholic emancipation. Due to these circumstances religion, politics and social action merged into a powerful movement. Furthermore, O’Connell was able to create a mass basis for his movement: As the fee for the organi-sation was only a penny, poor people were able to join and it was therefore not restricted to the moneyed classes.

II.B. Contesting the Protestant hegemony

After establishing a mass basis and an ideology, the Catholic Association took part in Irish local elections, they were allowed to run within the election but a Catholic candidate was not able to elected. The first step in the new strategy of the Catholic Association, i.e. to voice concern about Irish emancipation in British parliament, was taken in 1826, when the Protestant nobleman Villiers Stuart won over the Waterford parliamentary seat from the Beresfords. By supporting the Catholic cause Stuart secluded himself from the mainstream public opinion in the Protestant community in Ireland and in Britain which was not in favour of Emancipation. His victory was mainly ensured by the [[40 Shilling Freeholder|40 shilling freeholders]] and by the local clergy agitating for him. Gaining confidence from this victory everywhere in Ireland, counter candidates challenged the given order. The most famous case was the by-election in County Clare in 1828 where O’Connell himself was a candidate. By this move he not only challenged the local elites but also the laws directed against Catholics as they had the right to vote but only for Protestant candidates because Catholics were not allowed to sit in Parliament. During his campaign O’Connell combined Catholic interests with national elements thereby achieving a landslide victory.

== III. The Catholic emancipation act ==

By his major success O’Connell forced the British Prime Minister and the Parliament to discuss Catholic emancipation. The British government under Peel and Wellington at first tried to gain time by investigating the election and by considering banning the Catholic association. The first step was considered as too explosive and the second became redundant as O’Connell dissolved his organization before the government could act. Therefore the only perspective was to introduce the legislation of the Catholic Emancipation Bill to parliament. Since it was passed there, the Bill became an Act of Parliament. It allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament and to take high ranks in Military and in Politics. However, they were not allowed to become Prime Minister or Monarch and in addition to those restrictions the 40 shilling freeholders lost their right to vote due to the First Reform Act. In total it can be stated that by this legislation Catholics and Protestants moved towards a state of quasi equality.

== IV Sources ==

Kramer, Jürgen. ''Britain and Ireland A Concise History''. London: Routledge, 2007.

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Irlands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2009.

Catholic Emancipation Act

2010-11-03T18:09:39Z

Friday: Created page with '== I. The Union between Great Britain and Ireland and the Petitioning for Irish emancipation == In concession for the approval of the Union British Prime Minister William Pitt …'

== I. The Union between Great Britain and Ireland and the Petitioning for Irish emancipation ==

In concession for the approval of the Union British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger had offered eman-cipation for the Catholics. Yet since the birth of the Union in 1801, nothing had been done by the British Gov-ernment to grant it. While the question of Irish emancipation was addressed to the Parliament in London the petitions were turned down by the great majority of both houses. Young barristers such as Daniel O’Connell frequently addressed this topic and other social issues of equality. O’Connell decided to employ a different strat-egy to achieve Catholic emancipation: Rather than petition for emancipation it was necessary for him to create a democratic social movement.

== II. The Catholic Association as a mass movement and its political implication ==

II.A. The Catholic Association

The Catholic Association, founded in 1823, was not only involved in religious and church related matters but was also active in addressing political and social problems. O’Connell did show concern for the problems of the Irish peasantry, i.e. poverty and land reform and was also able to win the support of the Catholic clergy. They did not only collect money for the organization, but also preached the sermon of Irish independence and Catholic emancipation. Due to these circumstances religion, politics and social action merged into a powerful movement. Furthermore, O’Connell was able to create a mass basis for his movement: As the fee for the organi-zation was only a penny, poor people were able to join and it was therefore not restricted to the moneyed bour-geois class.

II.B. Contesting the Protestant hegemony

After establishing a mass basis and an ideology, the Catholic Association took part in Irish local elections. The test case was performed in 1826, when the Protestant nobleman Villiers Stuart won over the Waterford parlia-mentary seat from the Beresfords. His victory was mainly ensured by the 40 shilling freeholders and by the local clergy agitating for him. Gaining confidence from this victory everywhere in Ireland, counter candidates chal-lenged the given order. The most famous case was the by-election in County Clare in 1828 where O’Connell himself was a candidate. By this move he not only challenged the local elites but also the laws directed against Catholics as they had the right to vote but only for Protestant candidates because Catholics were not allowed to sit in Parliament. During his campaign O’Connell combined Catholic interests with national elements thereby achieving a landslide win.

== III. The Catholic emancipation act ==

By his major success O’Connell forced the British Prime Minister and the Parliament to discuss Catholic eman-cipation. The British government under Peel and Wellington at first tried to gain time by investigating the elec-tion and by considering banning the Catholic association. The first step was considered as too explosive and the second became redundant as O’Connell dissolved his organization before the government could act. Therefore the only perspective was to introduce the legislation of the Catholic emancipation Act to parliament. Since it was passed there, the act then allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament and to take high ranks in Military and in Politics. However, they were not allowed to become Prime Minister or Monarch and in addition to those restric-tions the 40 shilling freeholders lost their right to vote. In total it can be stated that by this legislation Catholics and Protestants moved towards a state of quasi equality.

==
IV Sources ==

Kramer, Jürgen. Britain and Ireland A Concise History. London: Routledge,2007.
Maurer, Michael. Kleine Geschichte Irlands. Stuttgart: Reclam,2009.