British Culture - User contributions [en]

Glorious Revolution

2009-07-13T17:23:29Z

Cossoh99:

1688/1689. See sessions 3 and 4/Restoration Culture. See [[William III]].

Sensing the prospect of a Catholic succession to the English throne by the birth of James's son in June 1688, five Whig and two Tory politicians (the "immortal seven") asked William of Orange, James's son-in-law and Stadholder of Holland for intervention in order to restore England's "ancient rights and liberties".

William assembled a fleet four times the size of the Spanish Armada and landed in Brixham/England on 5 November 1688. Immediately he began marching towards London.
William's advance and the fading support among the English forced James to flee to France, leaving the English, Scottish and Irish thrones vacant. In April 1689, the Convention Parliament decided to offer both thrones to William and Mary, who were instantly crowned.

But already in March 1689, the exiled James took preparations to regain his power. Together with a small French force, James landed in Kinsale. After proceeding to Dublin, he called the Patriot Parliament as base support for his re-conquest.

William reacted by sending a large army of continental soldiers that entered a series of battles, which was subsequently ended by the treaty of Limerick after William's decisive victorys at the [[The Battle of the Boyne|Boyne]] (July 1690) and Aughrim (September 1691). The defeat of the Jacobites rendered the Glorious Revolution successful.

Sources:

Hall, Simon, Haywood, John, ''The Penguin Atlas of British and Irish History''. London [et al.]: Penguin Books, 2001.

Edmond Halley

2009-07-12T19:35:38Z

Cossoh99:

born in 1656, died in 1742 (in Greenwich).

English scientist in astronomy and mathematics and namesake of the famous comet.

Halley was son of a prosperous merchant and attended Queen's college in Oxford, leaving as an undergraduate in 1676. He travelled to the island of St Helena in the South Atlantic, which later became known to be Napoleon's exile, trying to chart the sky of the South. 341 stars were mapped during this 2-year-observation, which nobody had done before. Returning to England and publishing his work, Halley finally got a master's degree and also became member of the [[Royal Society]] like [[Christopher Wren]] and [[Robert Hooke]].

In 1684, after having a debate with Hooke and Wren about the planets' movement, he went to Cambridge to visit [[Isaac Newton]] and asked him for his opinion on that matter. Halley learned that Newton had already worked on the topic of gravitation leading to his later famous law of gravity. He argued Newton into writing and publishing his works. Therefore, Halley secured the finances of this project which became published in 1687 and known as Newton's ''Principia'' or ''Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''.

Being 39 years old, Halley got more interested in comets, believing that they were also influenced by the forces of gravity. By comparing the routes of comets of the past, he found out that these seemingly different comets were one and the same. In 1705 then, he figured correctly that this comet would reappear in 1758. Today it is known as Halley's comet.

By then, he had already been professor of astronomy at Oxford for two years.
Furthermore, Halley discovered the proper movements of the stars (1718) as well as the fact that the mean motion of the moon increases.
Meanwhile in 1720, being promoted the second ''Astronomer Royal'', he began observations of the sun and the moon which should take 18 years.

He also had an important position in the transformation of [[Royal Society]], then a social club, into a scientific institution.

He participated in scientific meetings until he died in Greenwich aged 86.
His last work ''Tabulae astronomicae'' was released after his death in 1749.

== Sources ==

"Edmond Halley." ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Edmond_Halley.aspx#1E1-Halley-E]

"Halley, Edmond." ''A Dictionary of Astronomy''. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O80-HalleyEdmond.html]

"Halley, Edmond (1656-1743)." ''World of Earth Science''. The Gale Group, Inc. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3437800278.html]

John Cannon. "Halley, Edmond." ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford University Press. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O110-HalleyEdmond.html]

Edmond Halley

2009-07-12T19:24:21Z

Cossoh99:

born in 1656, died in 1742 (in Greenwich).

English scientist in astronomy and mathematics and namesake of the famous comet.

Halley was son of a prosperous merchant and attended Queen's college in Oxford, leaving as an undergraduate in 1676. He travelled to the island of St Helena in the South Atlantic, which later became known to be Napoleon's exile, trying to chart the sky of the South. 341 stars were mapped during this 2-year-observation, which nobody had done before. Returning to England and publishing his work, Halley finally got a master's degree and also became member of the [[Royal Society]] like [[Christopher Wren]] and [[Robert Hooke]].

In 1684, after having a debate with Hooke and Wren about the planets' movement, he went to Cambridge to visit [[Isaac Newton]] and asked him for his opinion on that matter. Halley learned that Newton had already worked on the topic of gravitation leading to his later famous law of gravity. He argued Newton into writing and publishing his works. Therefore, Halley secured the finances of this project which became published in 1687 and known as Newton's ''Principia'' or ''Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''.

Being 39 years old, Halley got more interested in comets, believing that they were also influenced by the forces of gravity. By comparing the routes of comets of the past, he found out that these seemingly different comets were one and the same. In 1705 then, he figured correctly that this comet would reappear in 1758. Today it is known as Halley's comet.

By then, he had already been professor of astronomy at Oxford for two years.
Furthermore, Halley discovered the proper movements of the stars (1718) as well as the fact that the mean motion of the moon accelerates.
Meanwhile in 1720, being promoted the second ''Astronomer Royal'', he began observations of the sun and the moon which should take 18 years.

He also had an important position in the transformation of [[Royal Society]], then a social club, into a scientific institution.

He participated in scientific meetings until he died in Greenwich aged 86.
His last work ''Tabulae astronomicae'' was released after his death in 1749.

== Sources ==

"Edmond Halley." ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Edmond_Halley.aspx#1E1-Halley-E]

"Halley, Edmond." ''A Dictionary of Astronomy''. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O80-HalleyEdmond.html]

"Halley, Edmond (1656-1743)." ''World of Earth Science''. The Gale Group, Inc. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3437800278.html]

John Cannon. "Halley, Edmond." ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford University Press. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O110-HalleyEdmond.html]

Edmond Halley

2009-07-12T19:06:36Z

Cossoh99: Created page with 'born in 1656, died in 1742 (in Greenwich). English scientist in astronomy and mathematics and namesake of the famous comet. Halley was son of a prosperous merchant and attende…'

born in 1656, died in 1742 (in Greenwich).

English scientist in astronomy and mathematics and namesake of the famous comet.

Halley was son of a prosperous merchant and attended Queen's college in Oxford, leaving as an undergraduate in 1676. He travelled to the island of St Helena in the South Atlantic, which later became known to be Napoleon's exile, trying to chart the sky of the South. 341 stars were mapped during this 2-year-observation, which nobody had done before. Returning to England and publishing his work, Halley finally got a master's degree and also became member of the [[Royal Society]] like [[Christopher Wren]] and [[Robert Hooke]].

In 1684, after having a debate with Hooke and Wren about the planets' movement, he went to Cambridge to visit [[Isaac Newton]] and asked him for his opinion on that matter. Halley learned that Newton had already worked on the topic of gravitation leading to his later famous law of gravity. He argued Newton into writing and publishing his works. Therefore, Halley secured the finances of this project which in 1687 became published and known as Newton's ''Principia'' or ''Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''.

Being 39 years old, Halley got more interested in comets, believing that they were also influenced by the forces of gravity. By comparing the routes of comets of the past, he found out that these seemingly different comets were one and the same. In 1705 then, he figured correctly that this comet would reappear in 1758. Today it is known as Halley's comet.

By then, he had already been professor of astronomy at Oxford for two years.
Furthermore, Halley discovered the proper movements of the stars (1718) as well as the fact that the mean motion of the moon accelerates.
Meanwhile in 1720, being promoted the second ''Astronomer Royal'', he began observations of the sun and the moon which should take 18 years.

He also had an important position in the transformation of [[Royal Society]], then a social club, into a scientific institution.

He participated in scientific meetings until he died in Greenwich aged 86.
His last work ''Tabulae astronomicae'' was released after his death in 1749.

== Sources ==

"Edmond Halley." ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Edmond_Halley.aspx#1E1-Halley-E]

"Halley, Edmond." ''A Dictionary of Astronomy''. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O80-HalleyEdmond.html]

"Halley, Edmond (1656-1743)." ''World of Earth Science''. The Gale Group, Inc. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3437800278.html]

John Cannon. "Halley, Edmond." ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford University Press. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. 12 Jul. 2009 [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O110-HalleyEdmond.html]

John Locke

2009-06-15T15:07:38Z

Cossoh99:

John Locke was born on 28th August 1634 in Somerset, England as the son of an attorney. He became famous for his works on [[Contract Theory]], best depicted in his ''Two Treatises of Government'' (published in 1690). He died on 28th October 1704.

=== Early Life ===

From 1647 onwards he attended Westminster School for Boys and later studied at Christ Church in Oxford. During his studies he focused on a huge variety of subjects, attending courses on natural philosophy, literature, medicine and politics. At the beginning he seems to have been most interested in medicine.
It was also during his time in Oxford, in 1667 to be precise, that Locke made the acquaintance of Antony Ashley, later earl of Shaftesbury and first leader of the [[Whigs]]. Ashley spent a period of time in Oxford for medical treatment and was to ask Locke to become his personal physician and join him in his London home.

=== Political "Apprenticeship" ===

During the time Locke spent at Ashley's house he developed his political interests. It was also due to the help offered him by Ashley that Locke was hired by the British Government to research possible relationships between trade opportunities and colonization. He used his post to travel to many parts of the world during the next couple of years. His travels also took him to France in 1675. After studying the French language he started reading Descartes' works in the original. Influenced by Monsieur "cogito, ergo sum" Descartes Locke worked on ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (published 1689) during his stay in France, which lasted about three years.

=== Political Philosopher and Exile ===

When Locke returned to England in 1679 the [[Exclusion crisis]] was in full swing. During this time he started his ''Two Treatises of Government'' (published 1690), which might be regarded as a direct reaction to the events of the [[Popish Plot]] and the ensuing discussions. After the dissolution of the Oxford Parliament in 1681, the situation became unpleasant for Whigs and their supporters. Even more so after the [[Rye House Plot]] in 1683. Fearing the prospect of being arrested Locke fled to the Netherlands, where he once again joined his friend Shaftesbury and lived among other exiles. He only returned to England in 1689 after the [[Glorious Revolution]] had taken place and he deemed it safe enough to return.
Not safe enough to publish the ''Two Treatises'' under his own name, though. Until his death, they were published anonymously (although most people knew that Locke was the author).

=== Sources ===

"Locke, John" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 223 May 2009.

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

Absolutism

2009-06-15T14:14:53Z

Cossoh99: /* Absolutism in England */

== Definition ==
From the Latin "lege absolutus", i.e. absolved from obeying laws. "Absolutism is the political doctrine and practice of unlimited, centralized authority and absolute sovereignity, as vested especially in a monarch or dictator. The essence of an absolutist system is that the ruling power is not subject to regularised challenge or check by any other agency, be it judicial, legislative, religious, economic, or electoral." (''Encyclopedia Britannica'')
The term "absolutism" was first used as such after the restoration of the Spanish monarchy in 1823. By the 1830s the term was widely spread over Europe. It describes a political system prevalent in the 16th and 17th centuries associated with a strong central power (usually the monarch), an administration focused on the monarch, and a strong standing army.

== Absolutism in England ==
Absolutism in its classical form cannot be found in England. The [[Tudors]] are sometimes accused of absolutism, but they relied too much on the cooperation with Parliament to be genuine absolutists. The early [[Stuarts,]] [[James I]] and [[Charles I]], made some attempts to establish monarchical absolutism. But, this was not their primary political goal. They were actually trying to save the monarchy. The financial problems they were facing, forced them to undertake several political and social changes (e.g. the introduction of ship-money for the whole country or the sale of titles). These could be interpreted as trying to establish monarchical absolutism; but,it was in fact only the consequence of the monarchy trying to survive. Probably this was the reason why absolutism was not successful in the early period of Stuart reign. The political power shifted from the monarch to the parliament and vice-versa. Moreover, the local government relied on the participation and support from the gentry. Therefore a centralised system like that in France could not be implemented.
As a philosophical concept absolutism was introduced in England by James I's famous speeches to his parlamentarians when he claimed his [[Divine Right]] as given by God. But the most important political and philosophical English theories are to be found in Hobbes's ''The'' ''Leviathan'' and [[Robert Filmer]]'s ''Patriarcha'' or ''The Natural Power of Kings''. Though the former was more general at defining absolute power, namely suggesting that it could be also a group of people who rule the country, they both implied that this absolute power was not to be resisted.
[[Charles II]] and [[James II]] sometimes flirted with absolutism (especially with its symbolic aspects), but did not try to erect an absolutist system. Between 1681 and 1685 Charles ruled without Parliament thanks to subsidies from France, but this did not change the basic political system of "King in Parliament". James' politics of re-catholicisation of England (and his use of royal prerogatives) could be seen as attempts at absolutism. But the attempts were stopped due to the [[Glorious Revolution]].

== Successful absolutist systems in the 17th and 18th-century Europe ==
Very well established absolutist monarchs in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries were Louis XIV of France, Frederick I of Prussia, Marie-Therese of Austria and Catherine the Great of Russia.

== References ==
"Absolutism". ''Encyclopedia Britannica Online Encyclopedia''. Jun. 14. 2009. [http://www.britannica.com]

Chastian, James. "Absolutism". 2004. ''Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions''. Jun. 14. 2009.[http://www.ohio.edu/chastian/ac/ABSOLUTI.HTM]

"Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy". Aug. 23.2008. ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Jun. 14. 2009.
[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/#Abs]

Hooker, Richard. "Absolutism". 1996. ''The European Enlightenment Glossary.'' Jun. 14. 2009.
[http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/ABSOLUTE]

Kimmel, Michael S. ''Absolutism and Its Discontents: State and Society in Seventeenth-Century France and England''. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988.

Latitudinarianism

2009-06-12T07:33:56Z

Cossoh99:

In the 17th century a term for Anglican Christians who were still members of the [[Church of England]], but whose ideals were focused on moderation and tolerance. They stood against orthodoxy and religious extremes, which included issues of dogmatic truth, church organization, and liturgical practice. These ideas were derived from the concepts of Ralph Cudworth and the Cambridge Platonists.

Latitudinarianism developed after the religious conflicts and civil wars of the 17th century, especially after the [[Restoration]]. For instance, [[Samuel Pepys]] noted in 1669 that Dr Wilkins, bishop of Chester, was ‘a mighty, rising man, as being a Latitudinarian’.

Some members of the [[High Church]] argued against Latitudinarianism, believing that this attitude could lead to deism (the acknowledgement of God’s existence but rejection of religion) or mere negligence.

----

'''Sources:'''

John Cannon. "latitudinarianism." ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford University Press. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. 3 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

E. A. Livingstone. "Latitudinarianism." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. 2000. Encyclopedia.com. 3 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

T. F. Hoad. "deist." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology''. 1996. Encyclopedia.com. 3 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

'''Further Reading:'''

Griffin, Martin I. J.: ''Latitudinarianism in the seventeenth century Church of England''. Leiden [et al]: Brill 1992. (Brill's studies in intellectual history, 32)

John Locke

2009-06-11T19:12:36Z

Cossoh99:

John Locke was born on 28th August 1634 in Somerset, England as the son of an attorney. He became famous for his works on [[contract theory]], best depicted in his ''Two Treatises of Government'' (published in 1690). He died on 28th October 1704.

=== Early Life ===

From 1647 onwards he attended Westminster School for Boys and later studied at Christ Church in Oxford. During his studies he focused on a huge variety of subjects, attending courses on natural philosophy, literature, medicine and politics. At the beginning he seems to have been most interested in medicine.
It was also during his time in Oxford, in 1667 to be precise, that Locke made the acquaintance of Antony Ashley, later earl of Shaftesbury and first leader of the [[Whigs]]. Ashley spent a period of time in Oxford for medical treatment and was to ask Locke to become his personal physician and join him in his London home.

=== Political "Apprenticeship" ===

During the time Locke spent at Ashley's house he developed his political interests. It was also due to the help offered him by Ashley that Locke was hired by the British Government to research possible relationships between trade opportunities and colonization. He used his post to travel to many parts of the world during the next couple of years. His travels also took him to France in 1675. After studying the French language he started reading Descartes' works in the original. Influenced by Monsieur "cogito, ergo sum" Descartes Locke worked on ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (published 1689) during his stay in France, which lasted about three years.

=== Political Philosopher and Exile ===

When Locke returned to England in 1679 the [[Exclusion crisis]] was in full swing. During this time he started his ''Two Treatises of Government'' (published 1690), which might be regarded as a direct reaction to the events of the [[Popish Plot]] and the ensuing discussions. After the dissolution of the Oxford Parliament in 1681, the situation became unpleasant for Whigs and their supporters. Even more so after the [[Rye House Plot]] in 1683. Fearing the prospect of being arrested Locke fled to the Netherlands, where he once again joined his friend Shaftesbury and lived among other exiles. He only returned to England in 1689 after the [[Glorious Revolution]] had taken place and he deemed it safe enough to return.
Not safe enough to publish the ''Two Treatises'' under his own name, though. Until his death, they were published anonymously (although most people knew that Locke was the author).

=== Sources ===

"Locke, John" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 223 May 2009.

Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

Divine Right

2009-06-11T17:09:56Z

Cossoh99:

An exaggerated version of the traditional belief in the sacredness and supremacy of the monarch. Being influenced by the writings of Jean Bodin, James Stuart and [[Robert Filmer]]. Claimed that kings were absolved from any criticism by earthly authority and that they stood above the law. In the words of [[James I]] in “A Speech to the Lords and Commons of the Parliament at White-Hall” (1610): "The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth. For kings are not only God’s lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God’s throne, but even by God himself they are called gods".

Sources:
Hill, Christopher. ''The Century of Revolution. 1603-1714''. London: Nelson, 1980.

Wootton, David, ed., ''Divine Right and Democracy. An Anthology of Political Writing in Stuart England''. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986.

Empiricism

2009-06-11T14:38:53Z

Cossoh99:

Empiricism is one of the major branches of epistemology. Empiricists hold the view that knowledge can only be derived from experience. A weak form of empiricism claims that knowledge can only be gained through the senses. However, there are many different forms of empiricism, some of them denying innate knowledge, others dealing with sense data.

== Radical Empiricism ==

Radical Empiricism goes back to the theory of the Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776). He develops the idea that ideas are reducible to sensations. The name "Radical Empiricism", however, was coined by William James, who claims that this branch of empiricism consists of a postulate, a statement of fact and a generalised conclusion.

"The postulate is that the only things that shall be debatable among philosophers shall be things definable in terms drawn from experience. (Things of an unexperienceable nature may exist ad libitum, but they form no part of the material for philosophic debate.)

The statement of fact is that the relations between things, conjunctive as well as disjunctive, are just as much matters of direct particular experience, neither more so nor less so, than the things themselves.

The generalized conclusion is that therefore the parts of experience hold together from next to next by relations that are themselves parts of experience. The directly apprehended universe needs, in short, no extraneous trans-empirical connective support, but possesses in its own right a concatenated or continuous structure." (James, ''The Meaning of Truth'', Preface)

With the help of the statement of fact, James wanted to distinguish his notion of experience clearly from that of British empiricism and Kantian and Hegelian idealism, namely, "that experience as given is either a collection of disparate impressions, or, [...] a manifold of completely unsynthesized representations" (Runes, ''Dictionary of Philosophy'' 90).

== British Empiricists ==

British Empiricists is a label usually applied to the philosophers [[John Locke]] (1632-1704), George Berkeley (1685-1753) and David Hume (1711-1776).

== Early English Empiricists ==

In the early 17th century, the old beliefs seemed inadequate to the English people and therefore, many thinkers searched for new theories of reality. The two most important of them were [[Francis Bacon]] (1561-1626) and [[Thomas Hobbes]] (1588-1679).

In his work "Novum Organum", Bacon describes requirements for the study of natural phenomena. According to him, it is absolutely necessary to get rid of all preconceptions and prejudices in theories, ideas and languages before making scientific experiments in order to be receptive for the phenomena. Bacon is often called the founder of inductive logic, but this seems to be too exaggerated from today's point of view (Runes, ''Dictionary of Philsophy'' 91).

Hobbes, on the other hand, tried to apply deductive logic to new facts. Hobbes' focus was on Man, Matter and the State. Hobbes saw nature as corporeal and all events caused by motion. Man is dominated by passion which leads to a "bellum omnium contra omnes" (war of all against all). Nevertheless, man is able to use his reason and so decides to live in a state, whose foundation is a social contract.

''Sources'':

''Fair Use Repository''. 11 June 2009. http://fair-use.org/william-james/the-meaning-of-truth/preface [http://fair-use.org/william-james/the-meaning-of-truth/preface]

Lacey, Alan R. ''A Dictionary of Philosophy''. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976. 55.

Runes, Dagobert D. ''Dictionary of Philosophy''. 15th ed. (1st edition: 1956). Paterson: Littlefield, Adams & Co., 1962. 89-91.

Royal Society

2009-06-11T14:20:02Z

Cossoh99:

The Royal Society is the oldest scientific academy in the world. Although its precise origins remain obscure, the official founding date is 28 November 1660. Among the 12 founding fathers there were Sir [[Christopher Wren]], [[Robert Boyle]], John Wilkins and Sir Robert Moray.

Before November 1660, a group of scientists had met in an "invisible college" in Oxford in order to discuss Bacon's theory. Later on, the group moved to Gresham College in London.

The members of the Royal Society met weekly and watched experiments. New members had to be elected in order to be allowed to become part of the Society and they had to pay for their membership. Only in 1850, the government set up a grant system in order to support the scientific academy. Nevertheless, the Royal Society has always been eager to keep its autonomy in scientific research.

The Royal Society consists of Fellows and Foreign Members and therefore boasts many famous members and nobel prize winners. Amongst their present and past members there are [[Isaac Newton]], Charles Darwin, Ernest Rutherford, Albert Einstein, Dorothy Hodgkin, Francis Crick, James Watson and Stephen Hawking, for example.

Nowadays the Royal Society can be found in Carlton House Terrace in London, where they moved in 1967.

''Sources'':

Weld, Charles Richard. ''A History of the Royal Society: With Memoirs of the Presidents''. 2 vols. Reprint (1st ed. 1848). Bristol: Thoemmes, 2000.

''The Royal Society'', 11 June 2009: www.royalsociety.org [http://royalsociety.org/]

Yeoman

2009-06-10T11:00:31Z

Cossoh99:

== Etymology ==

ME. ''yoman'', ''yuman'', ''yeman'', ''yiman'', prob. reduced forms of ''yong''-, ''yung''-, ''yeng''-, ''yingman'', i. e. ''youngman'', which was similarly used in ME.

== General ==

Class in English society, between the [[Gentry]] and the labourers. Members of that class were generally freeholders of a lower status than gentlemen who cultivate their own land, a small landed estate. They were thus men of good standing. By possessing free land of an annual value of 40 shillings they qualified to serve on juries and vote for knights of the shire, and exercise other rights.

== Development ==

In the 13th and 14th centuries, yeomen in England were freehold peasants and Geoffrey Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales'' (late 14th century) depicts a yeoman who is a forester and a retainer. Most yeomen of the later Middle Ages were probably occupied in cultivating the land. By 1400, as many peasants became richer, all prosperous peasants, whether freeholders or not, as well as franklins (freehold farmers), were called yeomen. With the breakdown of medieval systems of tenure the numbers of this class increased and formed the basis for a rural middle class. In the 15th century, some yeoman farmers, leasehold as well as freehold, entered the ranks of the gentry. In 1577, Raphael Holinshed, in his ''Chronicles'', described them as having free land worth £6 (originally 40 shillings) annually and as not being entitled to bear arms.

== Other functions ==

Certain retainers of fairly high noble households were also called yeomen, and thus the name was given to specific branches of the royal household, e.g. ''Yeomen of the Horse'' or ''Yeomen of the Guard''. The Yeomen of the Guard are members of the British sovereign's bodyguard, first established by [[Henry VII]], now having only ceremonial duties and wearing Tudor dress as uniform. They are also called Beefeaters.

Other Yeomen:

◦ Yeoman Usher in the UK, deputy of Black Rod.

◦ Yeoman Warder, a warder at the Tower of London.

== Sources ==

T. F. Hoad. "yeoman." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology''. 1996. Encyclopedia.com. 10 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

Elizabeth Knowles. "yeoman." ''The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable''. Oxford University Press. 2006. Encyclopedia.com. 10 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

"yeoman." ''A Dictionary of World History''. 2000. Encyclopedia.com. 10 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

"yeoman." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 June 2009 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9077937>.

"yeoman." ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 10 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

Robert Filmer

2009-06-05T07:53:36Z

Cossoh99: /* Biography */

born c. 1588, died May 26, 1653, East Sutton, near Middlestone, Kent, England.

The English political theorist stood for a royalist and patriarchal attitude. He supported [[Absolutism]] and the [[Divine Right]] of kings, in opposition to the supporters of the [[Commonwealth]] or to the proponents of contract theories like [[Thomas Hobbes]].

== Biography ==

Robert Filmer was son to Sir Edward Filmer. His education took place at Trinity College, Cambridge, as well as at Lincoln's Inn, London. He devoted himself to the life of a scholar and pursued it in his country house in Kent. When [[Charles I]] became king, Filmer was knighted. His brother and his son were also at court. Although he never played an active part in politics, he was temporarily imprisoned in Leeds Castle during Civil War in 1643 for his political writings. After the first Civil War and being free again, Filmer wrote several political treatises maintaining conservatism. While his works were not published in time of writing and were only circulated in manuscript, they got the more popular after the [[Restoration]] and were finally published posthumously during the [[Exclusion crisis]] in 1679 and the following year.

== Works ==

In 1641, during Civil War, Filmer wrote ''Patriarcha or the Natural Power of Kings'' in which he formulated absolutist ideas. Due to the political circumstances, it could not be published. Before 1649, he composed ''The Anarchy of Limited or Mixed Monarchy'' in which he promoted a kind of ‘pure’ monarchy, very similar to that in France at that time. The ''Free-holders' Grand Inquest'' was authored during the Commonwealth. There he opted for the restoration of the old government, hence, the king. He also wrote an analysis of Aristotle's ''Politics'' where he again argued for the ‘pure’ form of government. With ''Observations Concerning the Original of Governments'' he formulated an absolutist theory in 1652, which was very much the contrary of the contract theories approach by [[Thomas Hobbes]]. Shortly before his death in 1653, he doubted the existence of witchcraft in his two treatises ''An Advertisement to the Jurymen of England Touching Witches'' and ''The Difference between a Hebrew and an English Witch''.

== Political theory ==

Being a royalist, Filmer defended the concept of [[Divine Right]]. He did that by exposing the patriarchal theory of the origin of government and thereby argued for [[Absolutism]].
It was Filmer's conviction that leadership had always existed and that God gave it to the first people on earth. This he regarded as a consequence of human sinful behaviour, an opinion already formulated by Thomas Aquinas in the Middle Ages. God would give leadership to the first man on earth, in that case Adam and then further on to other leaders meaning that English kings were heirs to Adam. Thus, power is given only to the king being the father of the nation. In Filmer's opinion, parliament had no competence in its own right but was merely some kind of royal council.

Patriarchal theory went well together with the demand of the Anglican Church for passive obedience. According to that demand, a king had to be followed obediently, whether he became king rightfully or not. Applied to the political situation in 1688 it meant that as long as [[James II]] was king, he was to be acknowledged as the rightful king. Later, when [[William III]] became king this obedience had to be given similarly.

Filmer's political treatises were in high value among the [[Tories]] and became the foundation for their political theory of government.

== Sources ==

Maurer, Michael: ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Reclam: Stuttgart 2007.

"Filmer, Sir Robert." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 June
2009 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034270>.

"Sir Robert Filmer." ''Encyclopedia of World Biography''. Thomson Gale. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. 4
June 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

"Sir Robert Filmer." ''The Columbia Encyclopedia''. Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 4 June
2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

== Further Reading ==

Sabine, George Holland: ''A History of Political Theory''. 3rd ed., reprint. London: Harrap 1964.

Locke, John: ''Two Treatises of Government''. With a supplement: Patriarcha by Robert Filmer. Ed.
by John Ira Cook. New York: Hafner 1947. (The Hafner library of classics 2)

Robert Filmer

2009-06-04T13:17:57Z

Cossoh99:

born c. 1588, died May 26, 1653, East Sutton, near Middlestone, Kent, England.

The English political theorist stood for a royalist and patriarchal attitude. He supported [[Absolutism]] and the [[Divine Right]] of kings, in opposition to [[Thomas Hobbes]].

== Biography ==

Robert Filmer was son to Sir Edward Filmer. His education took place at Trinity College, Cambridge, as well as at Lincoln's Inn. He devoted himself to the life of a scholar and pursued it in his country house in Kent. When [[Charles I]] became king, Filmer was knighted. His brother and his son were also at court. Although he never got an active part in politics, he was temporarily imprisoned in Leeds Castle during Civil War in 1643 for his politic writings. After the first Civil War and being free again, Filmer wrote several political treatises maintaining conservatism. While his works were not published in time of writing, they got the more popular after the [[Restoration]] and were finally published posthumously in 1679 and the following year.

== Works ==

In 1641, during Civil War, Filmer wrote ''Patriarcha or the Natural Power of Kings'' in which he formulated, for the first time in England, an absolutist idea. Due to the political circumstances, it could not be published until 1680. Before 1649, he composed ''The Anarchy of Limited or Mixed Monarchy'' in which he promoted a kind of ‘pure’ monarchy, very similar to that in France at that time. The ''Free-holders' Grand Inquest'' was authored during the Commonwealth. There he opted for the restoration of the old government, hence, the king. He also wrote an analysis of Aristotle's ''Politics'' where he again argued for the ‘pure’ form of government. With ''Observations Concerning the Original of Governments'' he formulated an absolutist theory in 1652, which was very much the contrary of the contract theories approach by [[Thomas Hobbes]]. Shortly before his death in 1653, he doubted the existence of witchcraft in his two treatises ''An Advertisement to the Jurymen of England Touching Witches'' and ''The Difference between a Hebrew and an English Witch''.

== Political theory ==

Being a royalist, Filmer defended the concept of [[Divine Right]]. He did that by exposing the patriarchal theory of the origin of government and thereby argued for [[Absolutism]].
It was Filmer's conviction that leadership had always existed and that God gave it to the first people on earth. This he regarded as a consequence of human sinful behaviour, an opinion already formulated by Thomas Aquinas in the Middle Ages. God would give leadership to the first man on earth, in that case Adam and then further on to other leaders meaning that English kings were heirs to Adam. Thus, power is given only to the king being the father of the nation. In Filmer's opinion, parliament had no competence in its own right but was merely some kind of royal council.

Patriarchal theory went well together with the demand of the Anglican Church for passive obedience. According to that demand, a king had to be followed obediently, whether he became king rightfully or not. Applied to the political situation in 1688 it meant that as long as [[James II]] was king, he was to be acknowledged as the rightful king. Later, when [[William III]] became king this obedience had to be given similarly.

Filmer's political treatises were in high value among the [[Tories]] and became the foundation for their political theory of government.

== Sources ==

Maurer, Michael: ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Reclam: Stuttgart 2007.

"Filmer, Sir Robert." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 June
2009 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034270>.

"Sir Robert Filmer." ''Encyclopedia of World Biography''. Thomson Gale. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. 4
June 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

"Sir Robert Filmer." ''The Columbia Encyclopedia''. Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 4 June
2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

== Further Reading ==

Sabine, George Holland: ''A History of Political Theory''. 3rd ed., reprint. London: Harrap 1964.

Locke, John: ''Two Treatises of Government''. With a supplement: Patriarcha by Robert Filmer. Ed.
by John Ira Cook. New York: Hafner 1947. (The Hafner library of classics 2)

Robert Hooke

2009-06-03T13:52:21Z

Cossoh99:

British scientist, one of the leading members of the [[Royal Society]]. Born July 18, 1635, in Freshwater, Isle of Wight, died March 3, 1703 at Gresham College, London.

At the age of 13 he briefly studied painting with Peter Lely, but had to give up because he was allergic to the paint fumes. Afterwards educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. Early experiments and collaborations with [[Robert Boyle]]. In 1662 Hooke was appointed curator of experiments at the Royal Society. He is elected Fellow of the Royal Society (FSR) in 1663. He becomes professor of Geometry at Gresham College in 1665. After the [[Great Fire of London|Great Fire]] of 1666 he was appointed as member of the Crown Commission devoted to the rebuilding of London, together with [[Christopher Wren]], Hugh May and Roger Pratt. Amongst other buildings, Hooke is responsible for redesigning Bethlem (or Bedlam) Hospital. In 1677, he replaced Henry Oldenburg as the Secretary of the Royal Society (he resigned from the post in 1682).

As scientist, Hooke worked in the fields of astronomy, mechanics and optics. Nowadays, he is associated with Hooke's Law, the law of elasticity, “which states the stretching of a solid body (e.g., metal, wood) is proportional to the force applied to it" (Encyclopædia Britannica). In September of 1664 he discovers the fifth star in the Orion trapezium. Around 1665 he publishes ''Micrographia'', a seminal work on the microscope. He quarrels with several fellow scientists, among them [[Isaac Newton]]. Hooke accused Newton of having plagiarised from ''Micrographia'' and Newton has to admit that he had "used Hooke's research as an inspiration for his own" ([http://www.roberthooke.com]).
Hooke perfectly followed the Royal Society's focus on the "improvement of all usefull Sciences and Arts". His invention of the spiral spring improved the mechanism of watches. He also improved the telescope. And he sets the "thermometrical zero at the freezing point of water" ([http://www.roberthooke.com]). His research on fossils paved the way for later scientists working on evolution theory.

----

'''Sources:'''

http://www.roberthooke.com

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/hooke.html

''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'',in 32 vol.[1974], Encyclopædia Britannica

Arnold-Baker, Charles: ''The Companion to British History'', 1996.

Latitudinarianism

2009-06-03T12:51:26Z

Cossoh99:

In the 17th century a denotation for Anglican Christians who were still members of the [[Church of England]], but whose ideals were focused on moderation and tolerance. They stood against orthodoxy and religious extremes, which included issues of dogmatic truth, church organization, and liturgical practice. These ideas were derived from the concepts of Ralph Cudworth and the Cambridge Platonists.

Latitudinarianism developed after the religious conflicts and civil wars of the 17th century, especially after the [[Restoration]]. For instance, [[Samuel Pepys]] noted in 1669 that Dr Wilkins, bishop of Chester, was ‘a mighty, rising man, as being a Latitudinarian’.

Some members of the High Church argued against Latitudinarianism, believing that this attitude could lead to deism (the acknowledgement of God’s existence but rejection of religion) or mere negligence.

----

'''Sources:'''

JOHN CANNON. "latitudinarianism." The Oxford Companion to British History. Oxford University Press. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. 3 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

E. A. LIVINGSTONE. "Latitudinarianism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. 2000. Encyclopedia.com. 3 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

T. F. HOAD. "deist." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. 1996. Encyclopedia.com. 3 Jun. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

Latitudinarianism

2009-06-03T12:51:03Z

Cossoh99: