British Culture - User contributions [en]

Eclecticism

2010-01-09T11:33:44Z

Ballerina: Created page with 'Eclecticism refers to a neoclassical style of art used from 1750 onwards. Architectures William Chambers (1723-1793) and the Adam brothers Robert, James and William developed thi…'

Eclecticism refers to a neoclassical style of art used from 1750 onwards. Architectures William Chambers (1723-1793) and the Adam brothers Robert, James and William developed this new kind of style.

While in the days before eclecticism came into being there was an emphasis on symmetry, order and on classical models, this came to an end and changed partly. Symmetry and order were still relevant but classical models were no longer used. Instead there was a miyture of different styles, for instance chinese or oriental styles.

Robert Adam in his Preface to ''Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam (1793)'' points out that the movement has to be beautiful and interesting like a picture. Thus, there were still the same rules but different aims leading to more diversity.

Moreover there was a trend to orientalism (in architecture as well as in literature) and the orient became a new topic and way of describing reality.

Eclectic buldings were for example the Pagoda, the House of Confucius, and the Orangerie in the Kew Gardens which were all designed by architecture William Chambers.

Nevertheless not everybody valued this new form of style as for instance J. Shebbeare in his ''Letters on the English Nation (1756)'' who criticises eclesticism for its non-conformity with God's creation.

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'''Sources'''

Denvir, Bernard.''The Eighteenth Century. Art, Design and Society. 1689-1789''.London: Longman, 1983.

Summerson, John.''Architecture in Britain 1530-1830''.Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969.

Swaddling

2009-12-06T19:04:07Z

Ballerina:

Until the 18th century, newborm babies were bound tightly so that they could not move at all. This was done in order to prevent accidents and to develop straight arms and legs. It was also believed that swaddling was beneficial for the moral character of a child.
Nevertheless the method of swaddling came to an end in the 18th century due to the following reason:

In connection to wetnursing, many children were left in their swaddled estate and the wetnurses did not really look after the newborn but left it in its care without washing and comforting it.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in his book ''Emile'' (1762):

"The child has hardly left the mother's womb, it has hardly begun to move and stretch its limbs, when it is given new bonds. It is wrapped in swaddling bands, laid down with its head fixed, its legs stretched out, and its arms by its sides; it is wound round with linen and bandages of all sorts so that it cannot move […]. Whence comes this unreasonable custom? From an unnatural practice. Since mothers despise their primary duty and do not wish to nurse their own children, they have had to entrust them to mercenary women. These women thus become mothers to a stranger's children, who by nature mean so little to them that they seek only to spare themselves trouble. '''A child unswaddled would need constant watching; well swaddled it is cast into a corner and its cries are ignored […]. It is claimed that infants left free would assume faulty positions and make movements which might injure the proper development of their limbs.''' This is one of the vain rationalizations of our false wisdom which experience has never confirmed. Out of the multitude of children who grow up with the full use of their limbs among nations wiser than ourselves, you never find one who hurts himself or maims himself; their movements are too feeble to be dangerous, and when they assume an injurious position, pain warns them to change it."

He obviously spoke in favour of children being left in an unswaddled estate so that they could act freely. He did not see the benefit in developing straight arms and legs by this method. For him, this physical development could also be achieved without swaddling.

But in today's medicine, swaddling constantly gains in importance because several studies have found out that it helps newborn children to sleep and to feel comfortable. Moreover, risks of the sudden infant syndrome can be minimized by parents swaddling their babies.

----

Sources

http://histclo.com/Chron/c17.html

http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/res.pl?keyword=Swaddling&offset=0

http://pediatrics.about.com/od/weeklyquestion/a/0607_swaddling.htm

Swaddling

2009-12-06T19:03:41Z

Ballerina:

Until the 18th century, newborm babies were bound tightly so that they could not move at all. This was done in order to prevent accidents and to develop straight arms and legs. It was also believed that swaddling was beneficial for the moral character of a child.
Nevertheless the method of swaddling came to an end in the 18th century due to the following reason:

In connection to wetnursing, many children were left in their swaddled estate and the wetnurses did not really look after the newborn but left it in its care without washing and comforting it.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in his book ''Emile'' (1762):

"The child has hardly left the mother's womb, it has hardly begun to move and stretch its limbs, when it is given new bonds. It is wrapped in swaddling bands, laid down with its head fixed, its legs stretched out, and its arms by its sides; it is wound round with linen and bandages of all sorts so that it cannot move […]. Whence comes this unreasonable custom? From an unnatural practice. Since mothers despise their primary duty and do not wish to nurse their own children, they have had to entrust them to mercenary women. These women thus become mothers to a stranger's children, who by nature mean so little to them that they seek only to spare themselves trouble. '''A child unswaddled would need constant watching; well swaddled it is cast into a corner and its cries are ignored […]. It is claimed that infants left free would assume faulty positions and make movements which might injure the proper development of their limbs.''' This is one of the vain rationalizations of our false wisdom which experience has never confirmed. Out of the multitude of children who grow up with the full use of their limbs among nations wiser than ourselves, you never find one who hurts himself or maims himself; their movements are too feeble to be dangerous, and when they assume an injurious position, pain warns them to change it."

He obviously spoke in favour of children being left in an unswaddled estate so that they could act freely. He did not see the benefit in developing straight arms and legs by this method. For him, this physical development could also be achieved without swaddling.

But in today's medicine, swaddling constantly gains in importance because several studies have found out that it helps newborn children to sleep and to feel comfortable. Moreover, risks of the sudden infant syndrome can be minizimed by parents swaddling their babies.

----

Sources

http://histclo.com/Chron/c17.html

http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/res.pl?keyword=Swaddling&offset=0

http://pediatrics.about.com/od/weeklyquestion/a/0607_swaddling.htm

Swaddling

2009-12-06T19:00:07Z

Ballerina:

Until the 18th century, newborm babies were bound tightly so that they could not move at all. This was done in order to prevent accidents and to develop straight arms and legs. It was also believed that swaddling was beneficial for the moral character of a child.
Nevertheless the method of swaddling came to an end in the 18th century due to the following reason:

In connection to wetnursing, many children were left in their swaddled estate and the wetnurses did not really look after the newborn but left it in its care without washing and comforting it.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in his book ''Emile'' (1762):

"The child has hardly left the mother's womb, it has hardly begun to move and stretch its limbs, when it is given new bonds. It is wrapped in swaddling bands, laid down with its head fixed, its legs stretched out, and its arms by its sides; it is wound round with linen and bandages of all sorts so that it cannot move […]. Whence comes this unreasonable custom? From an unnatural practice. Since mothers despise their primary duty and do not wish to nurse their own children, they have had to entrust them to mercenary women. These women thus become mothers to a stranger's children, who by nature mean so little to them that they seek only to spare themselves trouble. '''A child unswaddled would need constant watching; well swaddled it is cast into a corner and its cries are ignored […]. It is claimed that infants left free would assume faulty positions and make movements which might injure the proper development of their limbs.''' This is one of the vain rationalizations of our false wisdom which experience has never confirmed. Out of the multitude of children who grow up with the full use of their limbs among nations wiser than ourselves, you never find one who hurts himself or maims himself; their movements are too feeble to be dangerous, and when they assume an injurious position, pain warns them to change it."

He obviously spoke in favour of children being left in an unswaddled estate so that they could act freely. He did not see the benefit in developing straight arms and legs by this method. For him, this physical development could also be achieved without swaddling.

But in today's medicine, swaddling constantly gains in importance because several studies have found out that it helps newborn children to sleep and to feel comfortable. Moreover, risks of the sudden infant syndome can be minizimed by parents swaddling their babies.

----

Sources

http://histclo.com/Chron/c17.html

http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/res.pl?keyword=Swaddling&offset=0

http://pediatrics.about.com/od/weeklyquestion/a/0607_swaddling.htm

Swaddling

2009-12-06T18:59:39Z

Ballerina:

Until the 18th century, newborm babies were bound tightly so that they could not move at all. This was done in order to prevent accidents and to develop straight arms and legs. It was also believed that swaddling was beneficial for the moral character of a child.
Nevertheless the method of swaddling came to an end in the 18th century due to the following reason:

In connection to wetnursing, many children were left in their swaddled estate and the wetnurses did not really look after the newborn but left it in its care without washing and comforting it.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in his book ''Emile'' (1762):

The child has hardly left the mother's womb, it has hardly begun to move and stretch its limbs, when it is given new bonds. It is wrapped in swaddling bands, laid down with its head fixed, its legs stretched out, and its arms by its sides; it is wound round with linen and bandages of all sorts so that it cannot move […]. Whence comes this unreasonable custom? From an unnatural practice. Since mothers despise their primary duty and do not wish to nurse their own children, they have had to entrust them to mercenary women. These women thus become mothers to a stranger's children, who by nature mean so little to them that they seek only to spare themselves trouble. '''A child unswaddled would need constant watching; well swaddled it is cast into a corner and its cries are ignored […]. It is claimed that infants left free would assume faulty positions and make movements which might injure the proper development of their limbs.''' This is one of the vain rationalizations of our false wisdom which experience has never confirmed. Out of the multitude of children who grow up with the full use of their limbs among nations wiser than ourselves, you never find one who hurts himself or maims himself; their movements are too feeble to be dangerous, and when they assume an injurious position, pain warns them to change it.

He obviously spoke in favour of children being left in an unswaddled estate so that they could act freely. He did not see the benefit in developing straight arms and legs by this method. For him, this physical development could also be achieved without swaddling.

But in today's medicine, swaddling constantly gains in importance because several studies have found out that it helps newborn children to sleep and to feel comfortable. Moreover, risks of the sudden infant syndome can be minizimed by parents swaddling their babies.

----

Sources

http://histclo.com/Chron/c17.html

http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/res.pl?keyword=Swaddling&offset=0

http://pediatrics.about.com/od/weeklyquestion/a/0607_swaddling.htm

Swaddling

2009-12-06T18:59:13Z

Ballerina: Created page with '== ''''''Swaddling'''''' == ---- Until the 18th century, newborm babies were bound tightly so that they could not move at all. This was done in order to prevent accidents and…'

== ''''''Swaddling'''''' ==

----

Until the 18th century, newborm babies were bound tightly so that they could not move at all. This was done in order to prevent accidents and to develop straight arms and legs. It was also believed that swaddling was beneficial for the moral character of a child.
Nevertheless the method of swaddling came to an end in the 18th century due to the following reason:

In connection to wetnursing, many children were left in their swaddled estate and the wetnurses did not really look after the newborn but left it in its care without washing and comforting it.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in his book ''Emile'' (1762):

The child has hardly left the mother's womb, it has hardly begun to move and stretch its limbs, when it is given new bonds. It is wrapped in swaddling bands, laid down with its head fixed, its legs stretched out, and its arms by its sides; it is wound round with linen and bandages of all sorts so that it cannot move […]. Whence comes this unreasonable custom? From an unnatural practice. Since mothers despise their primary duty and do not wish to nurse their own children, they have had to entrust them to mercenary women. These women thus become mothers to a stranger's children, who by nature mean so little to them that they seek only to spare themselves trouble. '''A child unswaddled would need constant watching; well swaddled it is cast into a corner and its cries are ignored […]. It is claimed that infants left free would assume faulty positions and make movements which might injure the proper development of their limbs.''' This is one of the vain rationalizations of our false wisdom which experience has never confirmed. Out of the multitude of children who grow up with the full use of their limbs among nations wiser than ourselves, you never find one who hurts himself or maims himself; their movements are too feeble to be dangerous, and when they assume an injurious position, pain warns them to change it.

He obviously spoke in favour of children being left in an unswaddled estate so that they could act freely. He did not see the benefit in developing straight arms and legs by this method. For him, this physical development could also be achieved without swaddling.

But in today's medicine, swaddling constantly gains in importance because several studies have found out that it helps newborn children to sleep and to feel comfortable. Moreover, risks of the sudden infant syndome can be minizimed by parents swaddling their babies.

----

Sources

http://histclo.com/Chron/c17.html

http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/res.pl?keyword=Swaddling&offset=0

http://pediatrics.about.com/od/weeklyquestion/a/0607_swaddling.htm

Samuel Johnson

2009-10-27T19:39:58Z

Ballerina:

Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709 as son of a bookseller (Michael Johnson). He is considered as one of the chief British intellectuals of the 18th century.

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'''Biography'''

Samuel Johnson was born in Lichfield, England, and from his early life on he suffered from several diseases (loss of hearing and blind in one eye). Since his father was a bookseller he early came into contact with books and developed a good knowledge even in his childhood.

Johnson later spent a year at Pembroke College, Oxford, but due to financial problems he had to leave. As a consequence “[…] he went to a severe depression” [www.samueljohnson.com/brifbio.html] . His depression lasted for two years. It was in that time that Johnson met the Porters, a merchant family. Henry Porter was a big help for Johnson to get back his self-confidence. Porter’s wife Elizabeth was from the first day she met Johnson fascinated by him. After her husband’s death, she got married (1735) to Samuel Johnson, who was 21 years younger than her (she was 46).

His first profession was that of a schoolmaster but he had to give it up because he did not have a proper degree and he was not respected by his students since his appearance was not very pleasant.

His career as a writer started in 1737 when Johnson went to London where he wrote for several periodicals. Later on, “he was assigned the task of writing thinly disguised reports of the debates in Parliament” [www.samueljohnson.com/brifbio.html]. Although he was quite successful in the 1730s and 40s, his real success started in the 1750s. Worth mentioning in this context is his ''Dictionary of the English Language'' which was published in 1755. ”Oxford University rewarded him with a Master of Arts degree, which came in time for him to include it on the title page of the Dictionary” [justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/20.html]. Moreover, Samuel Johnson is also known for his complete edition of Shakespeare’s works.

On 13 December 1784 Samuel Johnson died.

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'''Friendship with Boswell'''

In 1763, James Boswell (1740-1795) met by accident Samuel Johnson in a bookshop. Both liked each other and became fast friends. Boswell began his literary career in 1760 by writing pamphlets. In 1791 he published a biography about Samuel Johnson (''The Life of Samuel Johnson'') which today is known to be one of the best biographies ever written about Johnson. The biography was published in two volumes. "Contemporary criticism set the pattern of acclaim for the work and derision for its author." (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/74986/James-Boswell)

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'''Conflict with his patron'''

Samuel Johnson needed several years to write his English dictionary. Since he could not finance his work on his own, Jonson looked for a patron - and a man called Lord Chesterfield offered his help. Nevertheless, Johnson never received money from his parton and never heard from him until his dictionary was finished. Now, Lord Chesterfield expected a dedication to him in Jonhson's dictionary. The letter Johnson wrote to Chesterfield in response to his demand is well-known. In this letter, Jonhson describes a patron as someone who stands on the river bank watching a man drowning. Then, after the drowning man is saved, the patron asks him if he can help.

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'''Johnson as a man of letters'''

Not only did Samuel Johnson write his famous English dictionary, he is also known for his poems and othe literary works.
His literary career began shortly after his marriage. Johnson did not have much money and in order to earn some extra money, he started to write small articles for Edward Cave, publisher of ''The Gentleman's Magazine'', the first example of a magazine in a modern sense.
Quickly, Johnson realized that Pope's imitations of Horace's satires were very fashionable at that time and so he decided to write an imitation of Juvenal's satires and called his poem ''London''. This poem was very successful and was also acknowledged and praised by Pope himself.
In the following years, Johnson kept on writing for ''The Gentleman's Magazine''.
Moreover, he wrote biographies and even a preface to Shakespeare as well as some novels.

'''Major works'''

Essays, pamphlets, periodicals, sermons
1732–33 Birmingham Journal,
1747 Plan for a Dictionary of the English Language,
1750–52 The Rambler,
1753–54 The Adventurer,
1756 Universal Visiter,
1756- The Literary Magazine, or Universal Review,
1758–60 The Idler (1758–1760),
1770 The False Alarm,
1771 Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Islands,
1774 The Patriot,
1775 A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland
Taxation No Tyranny ,
1781 The Beauties of Johnson,

Poetry
1728 Messiah, a translation into Latin of Alexander Pope's Messiah,
1738 London,
1747 Prologue at the Opening of the Theatre in Drury Lane,
1749 The Vanity of Human Wishes
Irene, a Tragedy

Biographies, criticism
1744 Life of Mr Richard Savage,
1745 Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth,
1756 "Life of Browne" in Thomas Browne's Christian Morals
Proposals for Printing, by Subscription, the Dramatick Works of William Shakespeare,
1765 Preface to the Plays of William Shakespeare
The Plays of William Shakespeare,
1779–81 Lives of the Poets

Dictionary
1755 Preface to a Dictionary of the English Language
A Dictionary of the English Language

Novellas
1759 The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia

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'''Sources'''

http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/20.html

http://www.samueljohnson.com/briefbio.html

http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/boswell.htm

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/74986/James-Boswell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnson#Major_works

Samuel Johnson

2009-10-21T17:59:32Z

Ballerina:

Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709 as a son of a bookseller (Michael Johnson). He is considered as one of the chief intellectuals of British thoughts.

----

'''Biography'''

Samuel Johnson was born in Lichfield, England, and from his early life on he suffered from several diseases (loss of hearing and blind in one eye). Since his father was a bookseller he early came into contact with books and developed a good knowledge even in his childhood.

Johnson later spent a year at “Pembroke College, Oxford,” but due to financial problems he had to leave. As a consequence – it is worth remembering that he has always been an intellectual – “[…] he went to a severe depression” . His depression lasted for two years. It was in that time that Johnson met the Porters, a merchant family. Henry Porter was a big help for Johnson to get back his self-confidence. Porter’s wife Elizabeth was from the first day she met Johnson fascinated by him. After her husband’s death, she got married (1735) to Samuel Johnson, who was 21 years younger than her (she was 46).

His first profession was that of a schoolmaster but he had to give it up because he did not have a proper degree and he was not respected by his students since his appearance was not very pleasant.

His career as a writer started in 1737 when Johnson went to London where he wrote for several periodicals. Later on, “he was assigned the task of writing thinly disguised reports of the debates in Parliament” . Although he was quiet successful in the 1730s and 40s, his real success started in the 1750s. Worth mentioning in this context is his “Dictionary of the English Language” which was published in 1755. ”Oxford University rewarded him with a Master of Arts degree, which came in time for him to include it on the title page of the Dictionary.” Moreover, Samuel Johnson is also known for his complete edition on Shakespeare’s works.

On 13 December 1784 Samuel Johnson died.

----

'''Sources'''

http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/20.html

http://www.samueljohnson.com/briefbio.html

Samuel Johnson

2009-10-21T17:52:22Z

Ballerina: Created page with 'File:http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lemur/lemur.com/garret/portraits/sjohnson-eminent.jpg Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709 as a son of a bookseller (Michael Johnso…'

[[File:http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lemur/lemur.com/garret/portraits/sjohnson-eminent.jpg]]

Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709 as a son of a bookseller (Michael Johnson). He is considered as one of the chief intellectuals of British thoughts.

----

'''Biography'''

Samuel Johnson was born in Lichfield, England, and from his early life on he suffered from several diseases (loss of hearing and blind in one eye). Since his father was a bookseller he early came into contact with books and developed a good knowledge even in his childhood.

Johnson later spent a year at “Pembroke College, Oxford,” but due to financial problems he had to leave. As a consequence – it is worth remembering that he has always been an intellectual – “[…] he went to a severe depression” . His depression lasted for two years. It was in that time that Johnson met the Porters, a merchant family. Henry Porter was a big help for Johnson to get back his self-confidence. Porter’s wife Elizabeth was from the first day she met Johnson fascinated by him. After her husband’s death, she got married (1735) to Samuel Johnson, who was 21 years younger than her (she was 46).

[[File:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Johnson_Wife.jpg]]

His first profession was that of a schoolmaster but he had to give it up because he did not have a proper degree and he was not respected by his students since his appearance was not very pleasant.

His career as a writer started in 1737 when Johnson went to London where he wrote for several periodicals. Later on, “he was assigned the task of writing thinly disguised reports of the debates in Parliament” . Although he was quiet successful in the 1730s and 40s, his real success started in the 1750s. Worth mentioning in this context is his “Dictionary of the English Language” which was published in 1755. ”Oxford University rewarded him with a Master of Arts degree, which came in time for him to include it on the title page of the Dictionary.” Moreover, Samuel Johnson is also known for his complete edition on Shakespeare’s works.

On 13 December 1784 Samuel Johnson died.

----

'''Sources'''

http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/20.html

http://www.samueljohnson.com/briefbio.html

www.upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Johnson Wife.jpg

www.marcdatabase.com/~lemur/lemur.com/garret/portraits/sjohnson-eminent.jpg